Deploying RFID in Logistics: Criteria and Best Practices and Issues

Mwema Powanga, Regis University, Denver, Colorado

Dr. Luka Powanga, Regis University, Denver, Colorado

ABSTRACT

The Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology utilized in a variety of proprietary applications such as EZ pass tags in toll-road and toll-bridge payment systems, luggage check-in at airports and remote car door access, has gained traction as a supply chain management tool. The traction was accelerated by Wal-Mart and the Department of Defense who simultaneously started requiring vendors to equip consignments destined to their warehouses with RFID tags. Other firms such as Albertsons, Target, Kroger, CVS, Lowes, Gillette, 7 Eleven, Home Depot, Metro AG  headquartered in Germany, Tesco based in the United Kingdom followed suit either by issuing similar requirements or experimenting with the technology.  Despite this impetus, mass acceptance of the technology has proved elusive attributed to the infancy of the technology as a supply chain tool. This white paper distils the best practices from the experience of four of the world’s largest organizations; Wal-Mart, Tesco, Metro Group, and the United States Department of Defense DOD) that can be used by firms wishing to implement an RFID infrastructure. The paper begins with an overview of the RFID technology and how it is used in a supply chain environment to present a background against which the ensuing discussions are framed. A summary of the RFID adoption by each of the organizations under discussion is presented followed by the best practices and conclusions.   The RFID technology encompasses any electronic system employing radio or electromagnetic waves to collect, store and retrieve digital data that uniquely identifies an item usually a serial number called electronic product code (EPC) similar to a Universal Product Code (UPC). The EPC matching the identifying information about a product stored in a single or networked database is programmed into a tag equipped with a miniature chip to store the data. The tag contains an antenna to receive and respond to radio-frequency queries from the reader. The reader interrogates the tag for information by generating a magnetic field bubble. The tag once it enters this bubble is activated and transmits the EPC to the reader.  Through a network interface, the EPC is passed on to the database where information related to the tag is identified and retrieved.

Online Non-Proctored Testing and its Affect on Final Course Grades

Dr. Marian C. Schultz, The University of West Florida

Dr. James T. Schultz, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Dr. Gene Round, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

ABSTRACT

The growth and escalating interest in online programs has brought about an academic inquiry regarding the implementation of online testing without proctors and its subsequent affect on course grades. This study examined four courses taught at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University to ascertain if there was a significant difference in overall course grades between proctored and non-proctored examinations. The study found that in the case of all four courses, there was no significant difference between the course grades achieved by students taking proctored and non-proctored examinations.  The mean grade for three of the four courses with non-proctored examinations was lower than when the examinations were proctored.  Evaluating student knowledge, or the amount of learning which has occurred in a particular course, is a critical element in assessing whether the learning objectives of a course have been attained. Online delivery methods represent a paradigm shift in learning which has been enabled by new information technologies. The learning environment has moved from a provider based focus to one that markets to the consumer requests for efficiency and convenience.  In its infancy, virtual learning was hampered by technology, or in this case, a lack thereof.  Feenberg described the equipment as “expensive and primitive.”  “The complexity of basic computer operations in those days was such that it took a full page of printed instructions just to connect” (Feenberg, 1999).  Distance learning has been in existence for over 100 years, but until 25 years ago testing was consistently administered through the pencil and paper format. In 1982 the American College introduced Examinations on Demand, a program which allowed the students to take a test for a course when desired. While online examinations now allowed the students to take a test at their personal office or home, rather than in the stressful environment of the classroom, the situation led to the problem of ensuring the identity of the person who was taking the test since it was no longer proctored (Brewer, 2005).  Embry Riddle Aeronautical University is among the universities that provide the consumer with both the traditional and online degree programs. The continuing expansion of Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University’s Worldwide  Online learning program brought about a change in 2004 affecting how students would be tested. The increasing challenge to strengthen student retention initiated the move from proctored to non-proctored examinations.

A Quantitative Assessment of Factors Impacting the Price of a for-Profit Education Stock

Dr. Robert L. Johnson, University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ

ABSTRACT

For-profit education has been around for over thirty years now becoming big business.  The goal or question to be answered was if a relationship could be discovered between certain financial and economic metrics one quarter and the price of a for-profit education stock the following quarter in order to forecast the price of the stock. Today we live in a post 9/11 era, sub-prime mortgage meltdown, and a prolonged war on terror, and theories and models developed twenty to fifty years ago may or may not still be as reliable. It would be remiss not to take a fresh look even if to revalidate some older theories or perhaps suggest there may be some new ways of looking at them. For-profit education has been around for over thirty years now. It is increasingly becoming big business as institutions such as the University of Phoenix, DeVry Incorporated, Strayer Education, Corinthian College, ITT Education Services, and others have made solid headway into the postsecondary arena with campuses in multiple states, online, and even other countries. This has come about due to a variety of factors. “Globalization and the revolution in technological communications are major forces of change in higher education. This environment, when coupled with the needs of adult learners and the rising costs of tuition at traditional colleges and universities, has stimulated the emergence of for-profit, degree-granting higher education in the United States” (Morey, 2004, p. 131). Competition in a free market environment has motivated educational institutions to develop efficiencies, curriculum students want, improved customer service, modalities such as evening classes or distance and/or online classrooms. The latter significantly enlarges one’s market. Today’s students want their schools to be “. . . convenient, accessible, high quality for low cost, open during the evenings and on weekends, and have helpful staff, available parking, and no waiting in long lines” (Morey, 2004, p. 135). The for-profits have delivered on this. Most of all, students want access for those who live in remote locations and must work during the day. The for-profits have benefited from the working student in that they often have employee tuition reimbursement befits which helps maximize educational service’s revenues.

A Comparison of U.S. Corporate Governance and European Corporate Governance

Abigail Barnett, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX

Dr. Balasundram Maniam, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the corporate governance models of both the United States and Europe.  The shareholder model of the U.S. and the United Kingdom will be compared on terms of recent changes, as instituted by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Combined Code on Corporate Governance, and various securities exchanges’ listing rules.  The stakeholder model of Germany and how it differs from the shareholder model will also be discussed.  Many of the recent changes in corporate governance standards are the result of regulation changes in the area of director independence.  There is a call to increase the independence of the board of directors and specifically the audit committee to enhance directors’ ability to perform their duties and protect shareholders’ investments. These changes have stemmed from recent corporate scandals and it will take time to determine how effective these changes are. Corporate governance has been defined in many ways, however, it refers the oversight of corporations and the methods employed to assure the corporation’s actions meet the interest of concerned parties, or stakeholders. Corporate governance typically focuses on how mitigate the agency problem that arises when ownership and management of the firm is separated.  This may be mitigated through several means such as the oversight of management by the board of directors, compensation and incentive arrangements, internal controls, external audits, and regulatory oversight.  Recent corporate scandals, in both the United States (U.S.) and Europe, have brought about recent changes in the standards of corporate governance and are primarily intended to prevent fraud and better protect investors.  A majority of these changes have focused on board structure, reporting requirements, and best practices. The focus on board structure after major corporate scandals is because corporate boards have been seen as inadequate at protecting both shareholders and stakeholders from these scandals, and change in this area is critical (Murphy and Topyan, 2005).  Both the United States and portions of Europe have a shareholder corporate governance system, which is based on the theory that the firm’s objective should be to maximize shareholder wealth.

E-Commerce:  On-Line Retail Distribution Strategies and Global Challenges

Dr. Kamlesh T. Mehta, Peace College, Raleigh, NC

ABSTRACT

In the 21^st Century, e-commerce has become the frontier of global business and is growing at an exponential rate.  This paper addresses the role of the on-line marketing as it relates to the distribution strategies, strategic on-line challenges faced by multinational companies, positioning strategies for engagement on the Internet, existing distribution channels and the Internet, and challenges for global retailers and manufacturers.  Several examples of companies using the Internet distribution strategies are discussed.  The development and implementation of the Internet distribution strategies among global companies are very difficult and complex.  They can be disruptive, thus global companies need to realize that building a global market presence does not automatically translate into global competitive advantage.  The advancements in e-commerce applications will reinvent important business aspects of business organizations, redefining the ways global companies approach the on-line marketing in the future. With the increase in globalization of business activities, the use of the Internet has been on the rise.  The Internet is no longer simply a better way to publish and distribute information.  It has become the conduit for the billions of information exchanges that help make up daily life, thus, exerting a significant impact on corporations as well as people.  Shoppers today are faced with more choices of where to shop, how to shop, and what to buy than any mere mortal could intelligently comprehend and use (Lampert, 2007).  As the Internet has expanded, exciting predictions have been made about its possible role as a global business and marketing tool.  According to the results of Industrial Distribution magazine's 61^st annual survey of distributor operations, distributors will grow their business by using technology (Keough, 2007).  According to the survey results, 66% of respondents say customers use the Internet to make purchases, 52% expect Web-based sales to grow this year, and 70% believe their corporate website will be important to their future growth (Avery, 2007).  Since the Internet is a radical new distribution channel, many established global companies fear that the Internet has the potential to hurt them; to be competence destroying instead of competence enhancing; compromise their distribution network assets rather than leverage them; and disrupt their industry leadership positions rather than reinforce their dominance. 

Reevaluating Visuals in Direct-to-Consumer Print Advertising for Prescription Drugs:

An Argument for Active vs. Passive Depictions of Product Benefits

Dr. Amy Handlin, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, NJ

ABSTRACT

This paper argues that direct-to-consumer advertisers of prescription drugs could strengthen some of their messages by supporting them with active visuals: specifically, by replacing inanimate images or static photos of people with depictions of product users enjoying the use of their time. The author draws from research on time perception, involvement and message strategy to describe this opportunity. Moreover, the opportunity is linked to the increasingly important role of women as decision-makers and information-seekers for the health care of themselves and their families. It is rare to find a direct-to-consumer prescription drug advertisement in print format that is not dominated by an eye-catching visual. According to recent research (Handlin 2005), the visuals tend to occur in at least three primary types: 1. 20% feature landscapes or striking graphic designs. 2. 40% are static images of product users. 3. 40% are depictions of users engaging in work or leisure activity. Obviously, the specific benefit claims supported by these visuals differ by product. Across drug types, however, DTC brand benefits most often fall into the following five categories:1. relief from pain and discomfort.2. freedom from anxiety.3. appearing healthier.4. ability to participate in desired activities.5. enhanced enjoyment of social and family interactions. Key to the argument in this paper is that fact that, based on the author’s review of 45 recent DTC print ads, inanimate visuals or static images of people are almost always used to support benefits in categories 1, 2 and 3. Depictions of activity are limited to ads that focus on benefit categories 4 and 5. 

Significance of Leadership Style and Gender Upon Adeptness for Engaging in

Organizational Innovative Initiatives

Dr. James L. Morrison, University of Delaware, Delaware

G. Titi Oladunjoye, Albany State University

Dale Rose, Albany State University

ABSTRACT

Based on the findings of this study, it may be concluded that a combination of gender and leadership style has a significant impact upon the process of engaging others to innovate. However, it terms of individual initiatives to innovate, gender and leadership styles was less of a significant factor.  In addition, research findings indicate that male and female perceptions of gender adeptness in applying leadership skills towards promoting innovative efforts are somewhat different  Do male and female leaders in organizations in the private sector differ in the styles they adapt for planning and implementing innovative practices as part of their daily operational responsibilities?  This question has been the focus of considerable research over the past several decades (Cooper & Kleinshmidt, 1998; Amabile, 1983 ).  In this regard, research has resulted in some contradictory explanations that delineate gender similarities and differences  in leadership styles.    Some scholars have concluded that leadership styles of males and females do different significantly (Gillian, 1982; Hare, 1996) while others argue there are no differences (Dobbins & Platz, 1986; Klenke, 1993). This research focuses on how the gender of those in senior management positions impacts upon enhancing innovation in the workplace.  Since innovation and success generally go together, this research is an attempt to compare gender perspectives of those in senior leadership positions as to who is more adept in leveraging resources for generating innovative advances in products and services offered by organizations in the private sector.   For this research, senior management is perceived as a team of individuals at the highest level in an organization, such as president, vice-president, chief financial officer, and others.  These are individuals who have the day-to-day responsibilities of leading a corporation.  As a basis for study, it is argued that these leaders   have great impact upon how innovation is promoted as a workplace expectation. To become innovative   typically involves risk-taking on the part of those engaged in creating something new and different.   A key challenge in innovation is maintaining a balance between risk-taking and process and/or product innovation.  In this regard, process innovation tends to involve an operational model which results in improving efficiency in production while product innovation typically results in adding value to a commodity or service. Therefore, in this study, innovation is defined as the process of creating something new to enhance the process of work and/or to add value to current products and services offered to the public.  Therefore, creativity and innovation in this study are closely related. Based upon scholarly research conducted in the public sector, Challenging Women: Gender, Culture and Organizations (Maddock, 1999) offers an intriguing assessment of organizational forces that assist in enhancing change. In this instance, Maddock delineates a linkage between gender, innovation, and organizational transformation. 

The Short-Run Performance of Initial Public Offerings: An Empirical Study for Thailand

Dr. Chaiporn Vithessonthi, Mahasarakham University, Thailand

ABSTRACT

In this paper I investigate stock returns of initial public offerings (IPOs) in Thailand between 2001 and 2005. Based on a sample of 43 IPO firms listed on the Market for Alternative Investment (mai) between 2001 and 2005, I find mixed results: although the average market-adjusted initial return on the first trading day is 13.72 percent and significant, the average market-adjusted initial return varies across year of issuance. While the average adjusted initial return for IPOs in Thailand is substantial, it is smaller that the average excess returns for IPOs in other countries.  Finance theory seeks to understand the valuation of initial public offerings (IPOs). To this end, research has explored the extent to which the firm’s valuation of its common stock is in line with that of investors. To date, the empirical literature examining the valuation of initial public offerings have produced similar results (Drobetz, Kammermann, and Wälchli, 2005; Kunz, and Aggarwal, 1994; Loughran, and Ritter, 1995; Ritter, 1991; Sapusek, 2000). The overall conclusion of the literature is that IPOs are underpriced; i.e., the offer price of IPOs is on average lower than the corresponding first-day market closing price (Drobetz, Kammermann, and Wälchli, 2005; Sapusek, 2000). Almost all previous studies examined initial public offerings in developed countries. The prevalence of these studies raises the question of whether the similar results would be obtained in developing countries, especially smaller ones in Asia.  Initial public offering occurs even more frequently in good economic times because of firms’ desire to finance its expansion. With the enhanced globalization of financial markets, the investment in non-US financial equity markets has substantially increased. In particular, the rapid growth of emerging market economies (China, India, etc.) has attracted not only domestic investors but also foreign investors into the equity markets. The present study attempts to add to this literature by examining stock price performance of initial public offerings, using data on Thai IPO firms. Thailand represents an interesting example of an emerging market economy and the use of Thai data may be an important contribution to the understanding of initial public offerings in particular and in emerging market economies in general. As a member of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1967, Thailand has achieved considerable progress during 1980s in terms of economic growth, a fact reflected in its commonly known as the fifth Asian tiger prior to the Asian financial crisis in 1997.  A prior empirical work on the IPOs in Thailand, based on a sample of 150 IPOs listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand between 1985 and 1992, reports that the initial return for Thailand is 63.49 percent (Allen, Morkel-Kingsbury, and Piboonthanakiat, 1999).

Exploring the Value Profiles of Business Students in South Africa

Professor Miemie Struwig, Ph.D., Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa

ABSTRACT

This study explores the personal values of business students in South Africa. Personal values are general standards by which individuals formulate attitudes and beliefs according to which they behave. The values of these students are important to study as they represent the future leaders of businesses and other organizations in society. The Country Corruption Assessment Report South Africa (2003) indicates that there is no doubt that South Africans perceive there is a lot of corruption and that it is one of the most important problems which should be addressed. The business sector in particular (62%) believes that corruption has become a serious issue in business. The purpose of this study is to explore the South African business students’ personal values to determine what interventions may be necessary before they enter the world of work.The Personal Value Statement (PVS) instrument was used to explore the personal values of business students at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in South Africa.   The Personal Values Statement instrument developed by Allport, Vernon and Lindzey (1960) was adapted and only five value types, namely political, aesthetic, social, theoretical and economic were included in the South African study. This study further investigates differences that exist between female and male business students’ personal values. Researchers in America have reported different levels of agreement between men and women in their value priorities (McCarthy, 1990; Rokeach & Ball-Rokeach, 1989). In another study, however, Simmons and Penn (1994) reported a high level of agreement in the value priorities of male and female students. The findings of this explorative study indicated that sex-based differences in the value profiles of business students in South Africa are in line with those of other global studies. Male and female students of the 1960s were different in terms of five of the six evaluative attitudes. Among the students of the 1990s, male and female differences were limited to only three evaluative attitudes. The finding of this study is consistent with the 1990s’ global findings and of researchers such as McCarthy (1990) and Simmons & Penn (1994), who have noted "a high level of agreement" in the value priorities of male and female students.

Mediating Effects of Job Characteristics on Job Satisfaction and Organizational

Commitment of Taiwanese Expatriates Working in Mainland China

Dr. Sheng Wen Liu, Transworld Institute of Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Dr. Ralph Norcio, Lynn University, FL

ABSTRACT

With a population of 1.2 billion, mainland China has become a major target country for many foreign companies looking to expand their businesses because of its inexpensive labor and its large market.  Since 1987, many manufacturers in Taiwan have moved to mainland China to reduce labor costs.  In 2006, there were 70,256 companies from Taiwan operating in mainland China with fiscal expenditures exceeding US $42.81 billion dollars (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2006).  If Taiwan’s foreign direct investment (FDI) and offshore investment expenditures were included, Taiwan would have had the second largest FDI in mainland China (Department of Investment Services Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2006).  The purpose of this study is to investigate the mediating effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction and organizational commitment of Taiwanese expatriates working in mainland China.  Through a snowballing sampling plan, the entire accessible population of 6,156 Taiwanese expatriates was invited to participate by e-mail – resulting in a valid sample of 389 responses.  The methods of data analysis used in this study consisted of exploratory factor analysis (EFA), internal consistency reliability, and moderated multiple regression (MMR).  Findings indicated that (a) job characteristics mediated the positive impact of intrinsic job satisfaction on affective commitment; and (b) job characteristics mediated the negative impact of extrinsic job satisfaction on affective commitment and normative commitment.  A further study to replicate the research in different countries in order to explore the relationships among job characteristics, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment of expatriates was recommended.  Since mainland China instituted its “Open Door” policy, there has been a flow of foreign direct investment into the Chinese mainland that has resulted in a substantially increased number of foreign business executives working there (Selmer, 1998).  Moreover, for many western organizations, mainland China has become a very important country in which these organizations were willing to expand their Asian production and marketing operations.  It is the largest recipient of international foreign direct investment in the world (Tung & Warm, 2001; Bureau of Foreign Trade of Taiwan, 2006).  According to the Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China (2006), the value of its 590,105 foreign investments is in excess of US $678.24 billion.  Therefore, organizations have increasingly realized that it is necessary not only to have expatriate employees who are willing to live and work in mainland China, but also to have a staff that identifies closely with and supports the organization.  In addition, more Taiwan manufacturers are expanding to mainland China for less expensive labor. 

Strategic Analysis: Blockbuster Case Study

Yan Xie and, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL

I-Hsiang Lin, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL

ABSTRACT

This research intends to analyze the strategy situation of Blockbuster – a global entertainment provider of in-home movie and game, and to provide strategy suggestions for Blockbuster. Case analysis is used in this paper. First, this paper reviews Blockbuster’s background information, including mission, vision, and current strategies. Then it analyzes Blockbuster’s internal (by Resource-based view of the firm) and external environments (by the Porter’s five forces). Next, it uses the SWOT analysis to identify the gaps between current situation and the vision & mission. Finally, we propose an action plan to close the gaps.  Blockbuster, Inc (NYSE: BBI) is a global provider of in-home movie and game entertainment, with over 8,000 stores throughout the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Australia. It is headquartered in Dallas, Texas. Currently, Blockbuster operates the competitive home video and home video game industries which include in-home movies, such as theatrical movies, direct-to-video products, etc. and game entertainment offered by traditional retail outlets, online retailers, cable and satellite TV providers (Form 10k, 2006).   Blockbuster identifies its vision as “to be a complete source for movies and games” and summarizes its mission as: “to grow our core rental business while continuing to use our brand, our massive database, our stores and our studio relationships to deliver an even broader array of home entertainment to both existing and new audience” (Form 10k, 2006). Blockbuster tries to satisfy customers’ needs of renting movies and games, as well as buying and trading them (Antioco, 2004). Blockbuster’s current strategies are focusing on the revenue sharing agreement, subscription rental program, development of Blockbuster Online™, elimination of late fees, game pass and game rush, and reducing employees in order to reduce operating costs.  (1) The revenue sharing agreement states that Blockbuster keeps 60% of rental revenues and pays the rest to the studio owners, who allow Blockbuster to obtain the videos from original purchasing cost of $65 per video down to only $6 per video. (2) Blockbuster online™ (aka Total Access program) allows online subscribers to have unlimited rentals by paying a $19.99 monthly subscription fee. Customers can rent three movies at a time with up to five in-store exchanges for free movies or discounted games (Blockbuster.com). (3) Blockbuster eliminated late fees in 2004. Customers are permitted a one week grace period after the due day to return the products.

How to Support Entrepreneurial Learning Through an Online Pedagogical R&D Project? -

Case: Continuator Entrepreneurship

Dr. Irja Leppisaari, Central Ostrobothnia University of Applied Sciences, Finland

Dr. Marja-Liisa Tenhunen, Central Ostrobothnia University of Applied Sciences, Finland

Riina Kleimola, Central Ostrobothnia University of Applied Sciences, Finland

ABSTRACT

Ownership transfers in enterprises will dramatically increase in Finland over the next several years. This creates new challenges for educational programmes directed at entrepreneurs continuing a business and realised collaboratively between higher education and the workplace. Sharing of tacit knowledge and establishing a skilled network are central challenges in continuator entrepreneurship and demand new practices in education and professional development. This study employs a design-based research model to investigate continuator entrepreneurship, and also makes use of authentic learning and online mentoring planned and implemented collaboratively between working life and higher education representatives as an online pedagogical R&D project. The collaborative development aims to promote entrepreneurial learning, support the ownership transfer and find potential continuators.  During the next 5-10 years, a considerable proportion of the population of Finland will reach retirement age. Approximately every fifth SME in Finland, about 40 000 enterprises, expects the ownership of their company to change over the next five years. Finding a continuator is, however, a challenge for entrepreneurs intending to hand over leadership of their company; up to 46% of SMEs planning ownership transfer consider this issue problematic. (Pk-yritysbarometri, 1/2007; Peltoniemi, 2007.)  In ownership transfer, the ownership of an enterprise can be retained within the family, passing on to the next generation. Alternatively when an entrepreneur retires or leaves the business for other reasons, ownership of the company can be sold to a third party, an individual or company outside the family (see Peltoniemi, 2007). Entrepreneurs who gain ownership and leadership of a company after a change and continue the company’s operations are known as continuator entrepreneurs. Successful ownership transfer is an important objective in business life, in the realisation of which continuator entrepreneurial training plays a central role. Educational needs arising from retirement and ownership change should be identified well in advance, and continuator skills development models be included as a flexible and meaningful part of the ownership transfer. According to the EU Green Paper (2003) alternative learning forms, such as distance education and mentoring, in which entrepreneurs learn from each other, deserve greater attention.  Changes in working life also set challenges for Finnish institutions of higher education, which, in line with national directives (see e.g. Ministry of Education 2007), aim to increase the work-based orientation and local impact of their courses and respond to acute working life needs through flexible educational solutions.

International Diversification and Firm Performance: An International Analysis

Dr. Alfredo M. Bobillo, University of Valladolid, Spain

Dr. Felix Lopez Iturriaga, University of Valladolid, Spain

Dr. Fernando Tejerina Gaite, University of Valladolid, Spain

ABSTRACT

The internal and external competitive advantages of firms across different phases of internationalization depend on the resources used by industries for their financial development and growth. These advantages, as well as the influence of internal owners, facilitate the access of firms to foreign markets.  This study analyzes the relationship between the degree of international diversification and firm performance in Germany, France, the U.K., Spain and Denmark. Our results support a curvilinear relationship between the degree of internationalization (hereinafter DOI) and firm performance that is articulated in three stages who are concerned about   industry reputation, technological and distribution barriers and also showing high transaction cost. These findings point to a cyclic process in a firm’s international expansion, where overcoming such barriers and developing governance and coordination mechanisms to minimize transaction costs become the main challenge the firm must overcome in order to compete at the worldwide level. The globalization of economic activity has allowed firms to rapidly shift their activities in the search for new markets. In the international business arena, the international diversification-firm performance relationship is generally assumed. Vernon (1971), Kogut (1985) and Dunning (1993) suggest a positive relationship between the extent of multinationality and the firm’s economic return on sales when a firm exploits its ownership advantages and its specific assets in foreign markets. Contextual factors have led to the eradication of tariff barriers and encourage the most competitive firms to exploit market imperfections and to use their competitive capabilities to start up new ventures in foreign markets, thus improving their performance and outcomes. In the same way, the growing increase of inward activities provides the firm with opportunities to develop new relationships with other foreign firms. It also facilitates the knowledge of new techniques of international trade and the use of different operating modes that lead the firm to reach a better position from which to perform its foreign operations (Karlsen et al., 2003). Diversification represents a growth strategy and has been shown to have a great impact on firm performance (Chandler, 1962; Anssoff, 1965). In later research, however, various studies looking for a link between performance and international diversification show divergent results. In some cases, results evidence a positive linear relationship, whereas in others they show a negative linear, U-shaped or even inverted U-shaped relationship.

Analysis of Regional Competition Efficiency of the Hospitals in Taiwan: A Case Study

Ching-Kuo Wei, Oriental Institute of Technology, Taiwan

Mao-Lung Liao, Cardinal Tien Hospital, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

This research analyzes the regional competition efficiency of the target hospitals in Taipei area of Taiwan by developed Data Envelopment Analysis and finds that in recent years, the performance of the target hospitals the medical environment of Taipei area is unsatisfying. From 2002 to 2005, the hospitals are only efficient in 2002. After further analysis, we find that the main reason of the inefficiency between input and output of the target hospitals is the improper scale. Besides, after merging, the performance of the hospitals is unsatisfying. Thus, the hospitals must reduce input and increase the output to upgrade the operational performance. In addition, they should find the right development direction to have competitive advantages in Taipei area and fulfill the objective of sustainable operation.  In recent years, the medical environment of Taiwan changes gradually. National health insurance was implemented in 1995. Before the implementation, there were over 800 hospitals in Taiwan and two years later, there were only over 500 hospitals (reduced by 35%). In 2002, Global Budget System was practiced and the government led the medical service by budget and controlled the growth of medical expenditure. In 2004, Bureau of National Health Insurance promoted Prominence Project which resulted in the unsteadiness of the revenues and medical revenues. The hospitals thus faced the difficulties and even went out of business. The impact on medical environment significantly influenced the hospital operation in Taiwan. Among the medical regions, Taipei area has the richest medical resources. Thus, the hospitals in Taipei area are in the severe competition. This research aims to analyze the operational efficiency of the hospitals in Taipei area. The research target is a public hospital merged by Banciao Hospital and Sanchong Hospital in 2004 which provided medical and healthy services for the residents in Taipei County. However, since it is in severe competition, only recognizing itself and the rivals can maintain its competitive advantages of operational efficiency and sustainable business.  DEA is a non-parametric linear programming model for frontier analysis of multiple inputs and outputs of decision-making units (DMUs, e.g., hospitals), developed by Charnes et al. (CCR model) (Charnes et al., 1978) and extended by Banker et al. (BCC model) (Banker et al., 1984). Detailed introduction of DEA theories is provided by Cooper et al (2000).  The CCR model, which assumes constant returns to scale (CRS), and the BCC model allows for variable return to scale (VRS).

Current Shifts in Business Training: Evidence from Romania

Dr. Cosmin Joldes, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Dr. Alexandra Horobet, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT

Managers are becoming more aware of the value that investment in human resources, as opposed to expenses in intangible assets can produce at the company level and that human resource activities can focus on key business concerns, and in turn drive greater growth and eventually higher market value.  In this framework, the core-competency perspective focuses attention on the importance of knowledge creation and learning processes for building and maintaining competitive advantage in a world defined by globalization, demographic change, and the rise of the knowledge worker. Our paper explores the major shifts that are occurring in one critical activity related to human resources, i.e. business training, and discusses recent evidence found in the field in the Romanian market, one of the most active and fast developing countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The primary activities in any company, such as production, operations, sales, and service, are seen as directly connected to the value creation process linked to company’s products or services being offered to customers. Other activities like human resources, IT, and administration have been traditionally considered support activities and considered only as marginally contributing to the effectiveness or efficiency of the primary activities. Consequently, these other activities were seen as only indirectly adding value to the company’s products or services. Even today, these support activities, including human resources, are considered “cost centers” and not investments due to the manner in which most executives perceive their benefits and integrate the activities into the organizational structure of the company.  An acknowledgement and understanding of the importance of identifying the sustainable sources of competitive advantage needed for the creation of value for stakeholders in a highly globalized and knowledge- oriented economy indeed generated a new approach to firm valuation, one  pioneered by Rappaport (1986, 1987, 1992). This new approach offers a framework for linking management decisions and strategies to value-creation and focuses the executive attention on how to plan and manage firm activities to increase value for shareholders and at the same time benefit other stakeholders. Under these circumstances, as managers begin to be more aware of the value that investment in intangible assets, such as human resources, as opposed to expenses can produce at the company level, human resource activities can focus on key business concerns, which in turn will drive growth and eventually market value. 

Applying Quality Function Deployment in the Manufacturing Industry:

A Review & Case Study in Production

Dr. Zeynep Ocak, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT

In the manufacturing industry, quality function deployment (QFD) provides a comprehensive, systematic approach to ensure customer requirements and expectations are met via applying improvements to design, production and management phases. In this study QFD was applied to a leading Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) manufacturing company in Turkey.  The ‘case study’ company and its two competitors were compared in terms of customer requirements and product quality. The results of this study provided specific improvements that are necessary to be performed in the focus company.  Successful companies in today’s dynamic global economy are those that are able to efficiently design, develop, and manufacture products that will be preferred by customers over those offered by competitors. At the center of this idea is a need to deliver product designs that meet these customer needs while making the designs manufacturable at a competitive cost. To this extend, QFD has been recognized to transform consumers' demands into ``quality characteristics'' and developing a design quality for the finished product by systematically deploying the relationships between the demands and the characteristics (Akao, 1990). QFD is also viewed as a strategic planning and communication tool for linking quality that is defined by customer’s voice to appropriate quality and cost factors or attributes at all levels of the design and production process.  QFD is a concept introduced by Akao (1990) in Japan in 1966. It was first put into use at Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard site in 1972. Dr Yoji Akao defined the concept as follows: ‘‘QFD provides specific methods for guaranteeing quality at each stage of the product development process, starting with design. In other words, it is a method for introducing quality right from design stage to satisfy the customer and to transform customer requirements into design objectives and key points that will be required to ensure quality at production stage’’ (Akao,1990). Later in 1983, QFD was introduced to the USA and it has since spread quickly to many other countries.  

Method for Accelerating Transfer of Innovation and Technology to Technology based SMEs in South African

Duncan H. Tungande, Chief Financial Officer-Tshumisano Trust, Innovation Hub, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT

According to the South Africa’s National research and development strategy (August 2002), the innovation pillar involves the establishment and funding of a range of technology instruments that are critical to promote economic and social development.These include the two key technology platforms of the modern age,namely biotechnology and information technology. The Government has addressed the promotion of technology development transfer, and innovation, through different approaches, which can be typified as supply-side and demand-side. Naturally, these approaches are not mutually exclusive, but the emphasis of the measures recommended is changing from supply-side to demand. In the supply-side approach, R&D activities carried out by state institutions are intended to create new technologies which may contribute for the mission of the state, to foster innovation and the productivity of the private sector. The emphasis is on development of technologies. The demand-side approach emphasises co-operation by the state to improve the availability, adoption and use of technologies by SMEs, (Small Medium Enterprises) and activities to encourage investment in technology, education/training and information infrastructure. This Paper discusses technology transfer (TT) in university-SME partnerships as a means of promoting innovation. The Department of Science and technology established Tshumisano Trust to cultivate an entrepreneurial spirit within the populace of South Africa; mainly in providing innovative solutions to Technological based SME’s to address pressing Socio-economic goals of the Government. Tshumisano which means cooperation or partnership is the implementation agency for the TSP (Technology Stations Programme). The Trust provides technical and financial support to Technology Stations, which are based at Universities of Technologies/Technikons. The Technology Stations in turn offer technical support to existing SMEs in terms of technology solutions, services and training.  The agency through the TSP, experienced significant growth in enriching the Research and Development (R&D) of UoT’s (University of Technology) and in satisfying the needs of SMEs, which are the over-aching goals of the Programme. The Technology Stations are world class service providers of Technology services to SMEs. The services to SME’s are provided by technical experts with the requisite skills and expertise. The experts range from Professors, Lectures, Postgraduates and External Consultants, thus enriching the R & D of the host institution as well as solving technology based problems experienced by SMEs.

Technology-Related Privacy Concerns: A Critical Assessment

Cliona McParland, Dublin City University, Ireland

Dr. Regina Connolly, Dublin City University, Ireland

ABSTRACT

The exponential adoption of the Internet for transaction and interaction purposes continues unabated. Despite the obvious empowering benefits of the Internet however, consumers are becoming increasing aware of the ways in which technology can be used to collate information regarding them and the ability of online vendors to use this information without their express permission. Vendors facing intense competition in the marketplace are under increasing pressure to gain a more sophisticated understanding of their consumers and thus view the collection of consumers’ personal and interaction information as essential to achieving that understanding. Awareness of this fact has accentuated consumers’ privacy concerns and in some cases impacted interaction intentions and behaviour. Similarly, in the work environment, employees’ awareness that communication-monitoring technologies are being used to monitor their email and Internet interactions has increased. Despite the importance of this issue, research on technology-related privacy concerns remains in an embryonic stage.  Moreover, the literature indicates that much confusion surrounds the construct and in many studies the construct is neither clearly defined nor operationalised.  The aim of this paper is therefore to reduce that confusion by providing a brief review of the literature while outlining potential research avenues worthy of future research. This paper provides a refined and holistic understanding of the construct and consequently makes a valuable contribution not only to information systems research but also to practitioners in their efforts to better understand the factors that predict and inhibit technology-related privacy concerns. Privacy has always been a litigious issue as individuals strive to protect their sensitive information from mis-use by others. However, the advent of the Internet combined with the increasing proliferation of technologies in both the marketplace and workplace have been matched by a heighten awareness amongst individuals that threats to their privacy exist and must therefore be addressed. Despite the empowering benefits of the Web, consumers are becoming increasingly aware that technology can also be used by online vendors to collect potentially sensitive information regarding them and that this information can be used without their express consent. For example, online transactions require customers’ to disclose considerably more personal and financial information than they would provide in offline transactions (Miyazaki and Fernandez, 2001).

Culture and Internal Competition in Romanian Hospitality Industry: Dimensions and Risks

Dr. Claudia-Elena Ţuclea, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Dr. Olimpia State, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Dr. Gabriela Tigu, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the conclusions of a quantitative research aiming to identify a relationship between the coordinates of the organizational culture in Romania (investigated with Hofstede’s model) and the individual and organizational performance. The research tries to validate the hypothesis according to which the Romanian cultural model is still in a significant opposition with the competitive behavior leading to increasing individual and organizational performance. Although the idea of reward is attractive, at least at the theoretical level, its boomerang effect is encountered most of the times: the Romanians want to have more money, however this fact determines them to work harder only in the short term. Subsequently, the role of the two variables (the reward and quality of work) reverses: the work becomes a consequence of the reward. This fact seems to represent the expression of a collective frustration (still remaining from the communist regime), which generates an anxious problem of attitude: the extrinsic motivation (salary & wages) erodes the intrinsic motivation.  The internal competition within the Romanian organizations does not necessarily lead to beneficial effects. The lack of collective performance and the negative effects at the personal level (stress, anxiety, even depression) are only a few of the undesirable consequences of applying Western managerial practices in an environment characterized by a collectivist culture. The issues presented in this paper have resulted from the research accomplished by the collective of authors, with reference to the identification of the cultural values from the Romanian organizations belonging to the hospitality industry, and the impact of such values upon the Romanian employees’ behavior and labor performance. Although 17 years have elapsed since the change of the political regime, the changes in the collective mentality are still lagging behind. The Romanians themselves explain the economic failures in terms of “mentality”. The phenomenon analyzed is far more complex because the Romanian people generally exhibit a completely negative self-perception (as a nation) and a very low level of individual and collective self-respect (Heintz, 2005). Many Romanian historians made a critical analysis of the Romanian personality features based on more than 2000 years of Romanian history – and most of their conclusions revolve around the idea that “the Romanians are experts in constructing on approximate, non-dogmatic bases”. This feature was not understood as a defect, but as a mechanism of surviving the invasions during the great people migrations of the Middle Ages and subsequent foreign domination periods. The “superficiality” has helped the Romanians a lot during the communist regime, as well as during the Phanariot reigns.

The Problem and Solution of Export and Import Documents Presented Against Letter of Credit for Payment

Dr. Sut Sakchutchawan, Waynesburg University, Waynesburg, PA

ABSTRACT

Despite growing discrepancies in presentation of export and import documents for payment during the past thirty years, no research has been done on where, why, and how the discrepancies in the documents occurred. The objective of this research is to call attention to the neglect and to propose a resolution to this problem.  Beginning with a description of the problem, the research describes this phenomenon as a significant worldwide issue for sellers who are too often refused payments when banks discover discrepancies on export and import documents.  The findings reveal that the problems of discrepancies caused by the excessive terms and conditions of the letter of credit and the ambiguous context on each article of the Uniform Customs and Practice. To solve these problems, this research recommends that the context of letter of credit and the context of each article of Uniform Customs and Practice must be clear and concise. Secondly, a guideline with a practical example must be provided accordingly. Lastly, the personnel involved in documentary preparation must be certified to ensure they have enough skills to handle the documents properly. As importing and exporting businesses continue to grow as a part of global production, more attention and emphasis have been placed on understanding the key aspects of international trade transactions. More exporters are looking for foreign markets to sell their products. The great benefit of exporting is that large revenue and profit opportunities are to be found in foreign markets. Many of the world’s largest companies derive over half of their sales from outside their home countries. More importers are also looking for sources of supply to buy products. Companies and distributors seek out products, services, and components produced in foreign countries. They do this to reduce their cost. International trade or business comprises a large and growing portion of the world’s total business. The growing importance of international trade and the pervasiveness of problems related to the process of importing and exporting requires an ability to manage international trade transactions effectively. Exporters often face voluminous paperwork, complex formalities, and many potential delays and errors. Inexperienced exporters have a number of ways to gain information about foreign market opportunities and avoid common pitfalls that tend to discourage and frustrate novice exporters (Hill, 2004, p. 537). Many scholars in international business are interested in researching marketing of exporting, location of exporting, cultural values, international trade and environments, etc.

An Analysis of Exchange Rate and Export Growth in India

Dr. Sadananda Prusty, Institute of Management Technology, Raj Nagar, Ghaziabad, U.P., India

ABSTRACT

Empirical evidence drawn from Fang et al. (2006) shows that depreciation encourages exports in eight Asian countries, except Singapore. Fang et al. (2006) uses a dynamic conditional correlation bivariate GARCH-M model for the monthly time-series data on bilateral exports from 1979 to 2003 to arrive at the above findings. During post-reforms, India’s exports increase at a faster rate as compared to its GDP growth. Many factors appear to have contributed to the export growth in India including depreciation of rupee. Commerce and industry minister Nath (2007) blames the weakening dollar for the fall in growth of industrial output and exports in India. Mahambare et al. (2007) points out that exports growth in India has slowed down recently as compared to the previous years mainly due to the appreciation of rupee against dollar. These are the newspaper articles and statements. This research explores the post-reform long-run relationship between exchange rate and export growth in India by using time series tools (i.e., unit root, causality and cointegration tests). Empirical results suggest that there exists bidirectional causality between exports growth and exchange rate growth. Further, Johansen’s (1995) cointegration test result reveals that there exists a positive and significant long-run relationship between rupee depreciation and exports growth in India, thus supports the trade theory and findings of Fang et al. (2006). After a severe balance of payments (BOPs) crisis in 1991, India implemented a comprehensive package of economic reforms. Rupee was devalued in terms of US dollar by more than 30% in 1991. This was followed by a managed float regime. Between 1981–82 and 2001–02, the rupee depreciated at an average annual rate of about 8% (Mallick and Marques, 2006). Trade has been extensively liberalized. The export taxes and export promotion marketing boards that prevented free competition among exporting firms have been largely removed. India’s openness index, defined as the sum of exports and imports with respect to GDP, has gone up from 16% in 1985–86 to 37% in 2002–03 (Mattoo and Stern, 2003). These important elements of the new export promotion strategy have allowed Indian exporters access to the global market place. Coupled with the devaluation of the rupee, the reforms taking place since 1991 have reduced the anti-export bias of Indian industry and India has become an increasingly important player in world trade (Chopra et al., 1995). India's exports have grown much faster than Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over the past few decades. For example, its exports have grown by 17.71%, 27.58% and 24.33% per annum while growths in GDP are 5.57%, 4.37% and 9.40% in 1990-91, 2000-01 and 2006-07 respectively. Several factors appear to have contributed to this phenomenon including exchange rate of rupee vs. US dollar which has been depreciating consistently especially from 1993-94 (except in the year 1995-96, 2004-05 and 2005-06).

Measuring the Joint Effect of Country Image and Brand Perception in Consumer

Evaluations of Televisions: The Case of China and Malaysia

Natalie Powers, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL

Dr. Marc Fetscherin, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL

ABSTRACT

The majority of the world’s televisions are produced in emerging market countries, with China and Malaysia being two of the largest producers. This has important implications for brands emanating from these countries and entering the United States market, as country-of-origin effects are known to affect consumer perceptions. This paper uses frameworks developed by Martin and Eroglu (1997) and Aaker (1993) to assess U.S. consumers’ country image and brand perceptions of televisions manufactured in China and Malaysia. This is explored by exposing two groups of U.S. consumers to information and photographs about LCD televisions manufactured either in China or Malaysia. Our results yielded significant differences in country image perceptions by U.S. consumers, whereas perceptions of each country’s brands were not perceived differently. Our findings in this explorative study indicate that televisions as a product category are less sensitive to country-of-origin effects. This suggests positive implications for television brands from China and Malaysia surmounting the country-of-origin effect and succeeding in the United States market.  Emerging market countries are producing the majority of the world’s televisions, China and Malaysia being two of the global leaders. In China, the market-oriented reforms implemented over the past 20 years have seen the country transform from a largely inefficient arrangement of industries, owned and controlled by the state, to a more open economy of reduced barriers thriving on manufacturing and industry, and emerging as a global superpower. This has made the country increasingly attractive to Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) grossing over USD 72 billion in 2006. With its vast population, the economic reforms of the 1970’s have begun to trickle down to their 1.3 billion people, creating a huge domestic market of consumers. This has driven domestic demand for durable goods which in turn has given birth to several home grown Chinese brands, such as Today China Lion (TCL) and Lenovo among others.  The electronics manufacturing industry has been one of China’s strongest sectors, particularly that of television manufacturing. Before China’s period of reform, a single television manufacturing plant supplied the entire country with a meager 3,800 units annually (2007, China Daily). As of 2007, China was the world’s largest manufacturer of television sets with over 90 million units produced and about 40 million units exported (iSuppli, 2007). Chinese companies began as Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM).

Decision Factors in Global Textile and Apparel Sourcing After Quota Elimination

Dr. Kin Fan Au, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

Man Chong Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT

The country decision factors for global sourcing and the pattern of textile and apparel (T&A) trading are expected to change after export quota elimination in 2005 when liberalized trade is exercised. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) approach was applied in this study to evaluate the relative importance of the devised global sourcing decision factors in the post-quota era. A total of 15 T&A trading companies were interviewed and a questionnaire survey was conducted. The data were analysed and the results indicated the priority of product quality, costs, time to market and country factors are important in the consideration of global T&A sourcing decision in the post-quota era.  Textile and apparel (T&A) manufacturing is one of the leading industries which have actively and extensively exploited the global supply chain. Through global sourcing, foreign T&A retailers and firms can acquire good value products at competitive prices. Taking the global trend, buyers in industrialized economies have increasingly sourced in lower-wage countries in order to overcome domestic supply side constraints (e.g. labour shortage, high wages and land costs) and challenges from the international trading environment (e.g. tariff, quotas’ constraints and currency fluctuations) (Jin, 2004).  However, with export quantitative restrictions initiated by the Multi-fibre Arrangement (MFA) since the 1970s, quota availability of an apparel exporting country is a determining factor in the choice of locations for attracting offshore investment and global sourcing. The simple fact is quota entitlement represents the right of access to markets and also the single largest costing item in the overall cost of imported apparel, which usually accounts for 15-20% of the FOB price of the commodity (Christerson & Appelbaum, 1995). Trade statistics for the quota regime revealed that the global sourcing patterns in the T&A industry have significantly related to the quota status of the supplier country (Chan & Au, 2007). For instance, the Caribbean Basin countries and Mexico have significantly increased their apparel exports to the US market over the last two decades (Gereffi & Memedovic, 2003; Su et al., 2005). The spectacular surge in exports observed in these countries was attributed to the preferential trade agreements with the US. Under the arrangement, T&A products from these countries are entitled to quota free when export to the US markets. Similarly, the T&A industry of EU also witnessed a significant shift in her global sourcing patterns. The developed countries in Western Europe delocalised their apparel production to the Central and Eastern European and North African countries (Wong & Au, 2007).

Forecasting Apparel Exports of Selected East Asian Countries after Quota Phase Out

Chan Man Hin Eve, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Dr. Kin Fan Au, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Dr. Ka Fai Choi, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT

With the ending of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) and the demise of export quotas, the global apparel industry would have significant economic consequences. Commentators routinely argued that Chinese apparel exporters would surge in the apparel market. It was also expected that other East Asian apparel nations would suffer declines, leading to job and economic losses.  This paper presents the predicted trends of the apparel sector and focuses specifically on China and other East Asian suppliers, which include Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. The double exponential smoothing method is used to perform a three-year forecast on the future scenarios of this sector in the selected countries. The results show that China’s gains outstrip those of the other East Asian exporters by a considerable margin. It is hoped that the results obtained will serve as references for the industry and government in their continuous promotion and development of the changing market circumstances. World apparel and textile markets have been protected from competition by quotas under the Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA) for decades. These quotas not only placed an overall limit on the growth of imports from restricted suppliers, but also fixed market shares between suppliers through country specific quota systems (Nordas, 2004). In the heydays of the MFA, East Asian countries considered competitive in the apparel sector, were determined their exports by the developed countries. Until the Uruguay round under the WTO in 1995 which agreed that quotas would be phased out in a ten year timeline. In 2005, the quotas system had come to an end and apparel trade became liberalized. This was heralded as a new start for apparel trade and was forecasted to increase market shares significantly. There is a general belief that some key Asian apparel suppliers would have substantial changes in exports in the quota-free environment. Of particular concern was China, as a highly competitive producer, would surge in the world market. On the contrary, other East Asian suppliers may have suffered declines. The apparel industry is central to the global economy, exports value amounted to US$3110 bn in 2006 (WTO, 2006). It has played an important role in Asia; initially in Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan, and more recently, China.

Carrying out a Business Development Project: An Empirical Study on Methods and Stages of the Process

Dr. Katri Ojasalo, Laurea University of Applied Sciences, Espoo, Finland

Abstract

Major changes in the global economy, in social structures and in business have brought significant challenges for developing business studies. As the environmental pressure to reform business models and to be innovative in business increase, it is important that the students learn to be developers. However, students are usually still taught only traditional scientific research methods and processes instead of development methods and processes. The purpose of this study is to increase the knowledge of the process and methodological aspects related to business development projects. This study examines 15 real-life business development cases carried out by master’s students. Based on the findings, a systematic business development process is suggested in this article. The article begins with a brief look at changes in the business world, and how education can contribute to new kinds of innovative business competence. Also, differences between scientific research and development projects are briefly discussed. After the introduction to the background of the study, the purpose and the method of the study are described. In the findings, the systematic development process is introduced. Then, the final conclusions are drawn. The technologies, organizational models, and market and demand structures of the global economy have experienced thorough changes. Increased globalization, tougher competition, the rapid development of information and communication technology, the shortening life cycle of products and services, and increasing customer demands are features of the economic environment. As a consequence, innovativeness has become a major competitive factor for companies, networks and regions. As society shifts from the first, technology-focused stage of the information society to the second phase, which is based on customer needs, the customer orientation will become another big competitive advantage. The customer-oriented innovation of products and services directs companies’ operations and marks their core processes. The society and business operations are increasingly linked to possessing and managing information. The amount of information is growing so fast that companies need new ways of thinking. This creates completely new opportunities, so renewal is very important for existing businesses. Value chains no longer consist just of flows of physical goods; instead such chains are accompanied by information flows within and between companies.

Developmental Challenges in Executive Information System (EIS) for the Education Sector in Pakistan

Dr. Roshan Shaikh, IQRA University, Karachi, Pakistan

Syed Rashid Ali, IQRA University, Karachi, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

Educational Executive Information Systems (EEIS) are topical manifestation of computer-based information systems with the intention of providing educational executives with the intelligence they require to make strategic decisions. In recent years a number of organizations have implemented Executive Information Systems (EIS) in order to improve their business policy, planning and monitoring functions. This paper examines the adoption and usage of EEIS by the education sector in Pakistan. An indigenous model is presented in this paper reflecting the proposed EEIS that includes protocols, specifications, algorithms and interfaces while special considerations are given to cater for security issues in the proposed model. In order to identify the most critical design factors for a successful EEIS a focus group study was conducted. The preliminary results suggest that there is a dire need of comprehensive EEIS, preferably offered as an outsourcing service. The study has led us to believe that the most critical implementational issue are not the funding challenges alone. In a successful implementation of EEIS, the challenges include: technical expertise, departmental and organizational culture, strategic framework, operational priorities, HR, and administration policies. EIS describe systems that are used by senior executives on a regular basis to access strategic information for policy and planning purposes.[1]. EIS is a special class of network based applications which meet specific scaling requirements of Database and Data Warehousing functions [2]. EIS is defined as a computerised system that provides executives with on-line easy access to internal and external information relevant to their critical business success factors (Rainer and Watson, 1995) [3]. The aim of EIS is to bring together information from the contextually relevant but from external sources and the indigenous data from all parts of   an organization and present it in a way that is meaningful to executive users.  The motivation for this work is marked by the limited research on the examination of EEIS and their imlementational issues for the education sector in Pakistan. In this work an attempt is made to address the following burning challenges: Why EEIS is necessary for education sector in Pakistan? What is the current status of EEIS in education sector of Pakistan? How to develop the EEIS Model? What are the implementational issue of proposed EEIS in education sector of Pakistan?  

Constructing of Factor Indices: A New Approach

Sirli Mandmaa, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

Dr. Jaan Vainu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

ABSTRACT

The theory of indices is one of the youngiest branches of statistics. The theory of aggregate indices, which is presently widely used in statistics, was developed in 1871 by Etienne Laspeyres, professor at  the University of Tartu and Hermann Paasche, German economis, a proffessor at Aachen University of Technology from 1879. From then on indeces have been widely used in economic analyses and the fundamentals of their construction have remained unchanged: the factors included in aggregate fall into qualitative and quantitative ones and the period (last or base period) used in the  formula of index of invariable factor is determined considering the character of the  variable factor. Such a fixed order of the change of factors is of course not substantiated scientifically; however, otherwise it would not be possible to make the  cost, price and physical quantity form a system. This creates another problem: division of absolute increases. If we have to divide cost increase between the change in price and quantity, the change of price ( qualitative factor) will get a larger than the actual portion and quantity (a quantitave factor), a smaller portion. Several methods have been suggested for overcoming this problem but these have not been applied in practice. No clear consensus has emerged on who created the first price index. The earliest reported research in this area came from Englishman Rice Vaughan who examined price level change in his  1675 book “A Discourse of Coin and Coinage”. Vaughan wanted to separate the inflationary impact of the influx of precious metals brought by Spain from the New World from the effect due to currency debasement. Vaughan compared labor statutes from his own time to similar statutes dating back to Edward III. These statutes set wages for certain tasks and provided a good record of the change in wage levels. Rice reasoned that the market for basic labor did not fluctuate much with time and that a basic laborers salary would probably buy the same amount of goods in different time periods, so that a laborer's salary acted as a basket of goods. Vaughan's analysis indicated that price levels in England had risen six to eight fold over the preceding century (Chance, 1966).  While Vaughan can be considered a forerunner of price index research, his analysis did not actually involve calculating an index.  In 1707 Vaughan's fellow Englishman William Fleetwood  probably created the first true price index. An Oxford student asked Fleetwood to help show how prices had changed. The student stood to lose his fellowship since a fifteenth century stipulation barred students with annual incomes over five pounds from receiving a fellowship. Fleetwood, who already had an interest in price change, had collected a large amount of price data going back hundreds of years. Fleetwood proposed an index consisting of averaged price relatives and used his methods to show that the value of five pounds had changed greatly over the course of 260 years.

Management of Projects Financed by EU Programs in Croatia

Ana Bulic, University of Zagreb, Croatia

Maja Klindzic, University of Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT

The paper deals with integrations as modern tendencies in global economy. Specifically, the focus is on integration of the European countries, or to be more exact, on instruments of pre-accession help to potential candidates. Today, the EU consists of 27 member states, and there are three candidate countries, Croatia being one of them. Candidate countries are granted pre-accession funds enabling them to catch up with the member states to some extent. The main purpose of this paper is to give an insight into how projects financed from the EU pre-accession funds are managed in Croatia.  More than ever we have become dependent on each other. It has become clear that not a single state is self-sufficient and therefore cannot function as an island for itself. The reason for interdependency between states results from a well-known phenomenon that shapes our lives – a phenomenon called globalization. „Globalization is not just another phenomenon or a pass-through trend. It is an international system which overhangs and shapes both domestic and foreign affairs of almost all countries in the world. As such, we should comprehend it and embrace it. “(Jovancevic, R., 2005).  One of the most far-reaching consequences of globalization is probably the proliferation of integration between countries in the world in general. The European Union, as probably the most well-known example of an economic supranational organization consisting of 27 member states, was a starting point for this paper.  The European Union is not the only example of such integration. There is a great spectrum of organizations that became aware of the advantages that this kind of integration can (and did) bring to them. One should mention the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) consisting of the world’s most developed countries whose founders were 18 European states, the United States and Canada. OECD brings together the governments of countries committed to democracy and the market economy from all over the world. Its goals are as follows: (1) to support sustainable economic growth, (2) to boost employment, (3) to raise living standards, maintain financial stability, (4) to assist other countries' economic development, (5) to contribute to growth in world trade. (1)  NAFTA (North American Trade Agreement) is another example. Under the NAFTA, all non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade between the United States and Mexico were eliminated. In addition, many tariffs were eliminated immediately, with others being phased out over a period of 5 to 15 years. 

Social Intelligence and Project Leadership

Velimir Srica, University of Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT

Some ten years ago I was involved in a research study which came up with a relatively disturbing conclusion: 80% of projects fail not because we did not know how, but because of lack of social intelligence and personal skills, i.e. poor leadership, bad teamwork, inadequate communication, inability to resolve conflicts etc. In other words, in projects we rarely fail because of lack of professional skills and knowledge, and most often fail as humans. This conclusion is a starting point for discussing the human side of project management in order to make it better suited for success within a project environment.  Most project managers come from technical background and exhibit engineer mentality. In principle they are accustomed to organized, predictable, logical, well structured, detailed and standardized environment which is governed by objective rules and controllable variables. No wonder they tend to apply the same logic to fuzzy, disorganized, unpredictable, intuitive, emotional and subjective world of human interaction. It works with technology but will not work in most situations involving people. Instead of an ideal paper-based system which does not correspond with the reality, a flexible and dynamic system is needed which adjusts, grows and develops like an organism. A fairly functioning system is always better than a perfect system which does not function.  Whenever applying complex and highly standardized project management frameworks, we must remember that plans, standards, methodologies or software are not the goals, they are just means. The success or failure depends almost entirely on the human side of any project.  As a Columbia University MBA student, decades ago, I came across the following poem: IN BROKEN IMAGES: He is quick, thinking in clear images. I am slow, thinking in broken images. He becomes dull, trusting his clear images. I go on, mistrusting my broken images. Trusting his images, he assumes their relevance. Mistrusting my images, I question their relevance. Assuming their relevance, he assumes the fact. Mistrusting their relevance, I question the fact. When the facts fail him he questions his senses. When the facts fail me I turn back to my senses. He continues, quick and dull through his clear images. I continue slow and sharp through my broken images. He in a new confusion of his understanding. I in a new understanding of my confusion. We are living in the world of confusion. Project Management is no exception. We are living in the world of scientific clarification.

Executive Coaching in a Family Business Environment

Leon Levin, Gil Bozer, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Dr. Hartel Charmine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

ABSTRACT

Within the traditional business organizational climate in which an executive coach operates, the identity of the coachee can be quite clearly differentiated from the business identity.  This is not the case within the world of family business where the founder, the successor, the business, and the family culture are interwoven.  This unique feature of family business means that for executive coaching to be effective within the family business environment a radically different approach to that used in traditional business environments must be adopted, namely the consideration of what generally are thought of as non-business variables. This paper makes the first attempt to address the key and unique variables executive coaches need to be aware of to effectively work within the family business environment. The foundation stone upon which this paper is predicated is the fact that in most, if not all, evolving economies the influence of family businesses is extremely important. Gersick et al (1997) and Barnett et al (2006) acknowledge that family businesses are perhaps the dominant form of enterprise worldwide as more than two of every three organizations are family owned and/or managed. Lee (2006) agrees saying “…the proportion constituted by global business enterprises that are owned or managed by families is estimated conservatively to be between 65%–80%. In the United States, approximately 50% of the gross national product is generated by family businesses…the proportion of family firms in the United Kingdom and in the European Union is estimated to be 75% and 85%, respectively (p.175). We are reaching a period where many family business owners/founders are facing a crisis. This is because many are baby boomers and as such approaching retirement. To illustrate, a Canadian study undertaken by the University of Waterloo (1999) reveals that in the coming years Canada’s family business leaders will be retiring in significant numbers: 27% in the next 5 years, 29% in 6 to 10 years, and a further 22% in 11 to 15 years, leading to a potential succession crisis. Ip et al (2006) underscores the challenges succession presents for family businesses with respect to survivability in citing that only 5% to 15% of European family businesses reach the third generation, and 30% of closures may be considered transfer failures.

Innovation Management in Knowledge Intensive Services

Professor Jukka Ojasalo, Ph.D., Laurea University of Applied Sciences, Espoo, Finland

ABSTRACT

Knowledge intensive services and their innovation management are increasingly important in the modern economy. The vast amount of literature deals with innovation management in the context of tangible goods, however very little information exists on innovation management of knowledge intensive services. The present article contributes by proposing a framework for innovation management in knowledge intensive services. The framework integrates into a single model the special characteristic of service innovation management, knowledge intensive services, and service innovation process.  The role of knowledge intensive services and their innovation management is becoming increasingly important in the modern economy. According to Hipp and Grupp (2005), the trend towards a knowledge-intensive economy supports structures in which human capital and knowledge-intensive business service companies, in particular, play an important role as knowledge brokers and intermediaries. Data, information, and knowledge are intangible assets that are produced and traded especially by the service sector (Miozzo and Miles, 2003). The efficient distribution and utilisation of knowledge requires supporting functions (David and Foray, 1995), in other words knowledge intensive services. Knowledge intensive services are both highly innovative themselves and also facilitate innovation in other economic sectors (Den Hertog and Bilderbeek, 1997). The literature includes vast amount of knowledge of innovation management in the context of tangible goods. Innovation of services is clearly less investigated area than innovation of goods. However, service innovation has also attracted attention of researchers during the past decades (e.g. Donnelly, Berry & Thompson, 1985; Johnson, Scheuing & Gaida, 1986; de Brentani, 1989; Scheuing & Johnson, 1989; Grönroos, 1990; Edvardsson, Gustafsson, Johnsson & Sandén, 2000). Still, the research of innovation management in knowledge intensive services, which are a specific type of services, is still in its infancy. Indeed, there is an evident need to increase the knowledge of innovation management in this type of services. The present article responds to this need by proposing a framework for innovation management in knowledge intensive services. The developed framework is based on an extensive literature analysis in the areas of service innovation and knowledge intensive services.  The structure of this article is as follows.

A Probe into the Interrelationship of the Personality Characteristics, Value at Work, Commitment to Organization and Culture of Organization vs. Intent to Quit, Taking a Certain Medical Treatment System in Taiwan for Instance

Mao-Hung Liao, Cardinal Tien Hospital, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Ching-Kuo Wei, Oriental Institute of Technology

Hsien-Mi Lin, Cardinal Tien Hospital, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

Where the unemployment rate promulgated in Taiwan has been hanging high, the medical care industry has, ironically, either failed to solicit adequate high-caliber professionals and experts to meet the needs or has undergone continual high-caliber brain drain.  In medical institutions which are characterized by high level professionalism, the high quitting rate would not only bring up added costs in human resources training and nourishment, but would also downgrade the quality of services to patients. A hospital should, therefore, try by all means and channels to solicit and screen high-caliber professionals and experts and, in addition, take more prudent consideration about how to minimize employees’ intent to quit so as to effectively prevent and guard against quitting trend.  The present study is intended to probe into the factors that tend to affect employees’ intent to quit in an attempt to look into the initial causes which tend to lead to the intent to quit. The findings yielded in the present study is intended to benefit hospitals in human resources management.  The present study aims at the entire staff of a certain medical care system in Taiwan area.  We conducted the surveys by means of random sample-check and questionnaires.  We handed out a total of 1,400 copies of questionnaires, retrieved a total of 1,308 copies, including 1,247 copies as the successful ones, demonstrating a 95.4% successful rate.  The questionnaire was designed in closed type questions, including, other than personal fundamental particulars, five major facets, i.e., personality characteristics, value at work, commitment to organization, culture of organization and intent to quit.  The retrieved questionnaires were inspected and verified by means of descriptive statistics, T-inspection, variable analysis, Pearson’s Product-moment Correlation Analysis and regression analysis and such statistical methods.  The findings yielded out of the study indicate that different age, marital status, education level, service seniority accumulated in service of the Hospital, service seniority in employment, personal monthly salary, position categories, hospital level and influence of hospital in service upon the employees’ intent to quit demonstrate significant difference in all cases, with employees age 21~40 higher than counterparts age 41~60, unmarried employees higher than married counterparts,  employees as college and university graduates higher than counterparts graduated from senior high schools or vocation schools or blow; with employees 1~10 years in service seniority higher than counterparts less than one year and 15~20 years of age, those 1~15 years in service seniority higher than counterparts 15~25 years of age; employees with personal monthly salary as new Taiwan labor amounting to NT$30,000~40,000 higher than counterparts in NT$60,000~70,000 monthly salary, with nursing personnel higher than doctors, medical technicians higher than administrative staff, employees of local hospitals higher than counterparts serving with the regional hospitals, employees serving with case hospital C higher than the counterparts serving with Case hospital A. 

Regional Concurrence and Strategic Moves of MNCs Ensconced South Asian Market in the Current Global Competitive Environment: Impact of Global Business and Political Changes on the Newly Emerging Market of Pakistan

Tahir Ali, University of Karachi, Karachi Pakistan

ABSTRACT

Renaissance of Asia has been   predicted by many international business scholars for many years. Asia has been the fastest growing area in the world for the past three decades and the prospects for continued economic growth over the long run are excellent (Cateora, 2005). Enormous, unprecedented  global environmental changes, since the outset of the 21^st century have nudged out Asia in general and South Central Asia  in particular as the centre of international business and political activities. Although geocentric behavior of most of the international organizations throughout the world has been reflecting in this part of the world, strong regional co-operations may affect their objectives and strategies in the long run. Intensive investment and involvement of neighboring and other regional countries, dilution of some  crucial disputes with India and comparatively stable political and economic conditions  over the past five years have placed Pakistan as one of the fastest growing economies and a newly emerging market of the world. Alliances, ventures and political and business harmony in this region gradually eclipsing hegemony and compelling multinational and international organizations to redefine their objectives and strategies in Pakistan.  In the present scenario of globalization  and focus on this region by many developed countries and international organizations,  this paper would be highly fruitful for everyone in general and business community in particular. The digital revolution, diminishing of business boundaries, interaction of people and dramatic global political changes across the world for the past seven years have given the message that countries which do not cope with the global political and business environmental changes will be devastated in the coming competitive world. Globalization is now a fact and developing countries have to redefine their strategic moves to successfully convert this threat into opportunity. Asia, - the largest market segment in the world, has been handling this challenge through regional economic integrations at various levels. Pakistan has made tremendous economic growth during the past five years (2002 – 2007), establishing new records of most of the economic indicators. 

The Open Loop Economy

Richard Carranza, Consultant, Houston, Texas

ABSTRACT

The term “feedback loop” is frequently used by economists when describing the economy.  The economy is referred to as a natural feedback system.  Philosophers throughout history are cited by modern writers as having “discovered” the natural feedback loop in the economy.  Analogies are also made comparing the economy to electrical and computer systems in the cyber age.  The truth of the mater is that the term feedback loop is used loosely.  Actually it is used incorrectly from the point of view of modern engineering control theory.  This is because, technically speaking, natural systems, like an economy with no outside intervention, have no feedback loops.  Feedback loops exist when man intervenes and sets up sensors that measure and communicate with other devices that then act upon the system.  In a simple economy, where humans naturally engage in trade, no such feedback system is in place.  The model on which modern economics is built is an open loop system, not a closed loop system.  Yet, throughout the economic literature the term “feedback loop” is used freely.  Sometimes the term is used loosely, and sometimes it is used precisely.  In other instances, a differentiation is made between positive and negative feedback.  Nevertheless, the term is found everywhere in the published literature. John Montgomery describes the “invisible hand” of Adam Smith in terms of a feedback loop.  He states, “To Smith, the invisible hand was a metaphor for the workings of the market economy in the setting of the institutions of political and economic freedom. . . . Today, what Smith called the invisible hand might be thought of in cybernetic terms as “feedback loops” - for example, as market prices being regulated by negative feedback.”  (Montgomery, 1982) Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia, provides an intricate description of the economy in terms of a feedback loop.  “As an example, consider the government increasing its expenditure on roads by $1 million, without a corresponding increase in taxation. This sum would go to the road builders, who would hire more workers and distribute the money as wages and profits. The households receiving these incomes will save part of the money and spend the rest on consumer goods. These expenditures in turn will generate more jobs, wages, and profits, and so on with the income and spending circulating around the economy. 

An Assessment of Firefighters' Stress Levels

Dr. Bill Lowe, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale FL

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this evaluative research was to (1) assess the stress levels of firefighters. (2) Identify the impacts of stress. (3) Review departmental resources for addressing stress. And (4) identify strategies for reducing the causes of firefighter stress. The study’s four research questions were: (1) Are firefighters experiencing low, moderate, or high stress levels? (2) What are the impacts of firefighters’ stress levels? (3) What are the departmental resources for addressing stress related issues? (4) What are strategies applicable to reducing the causes of stress experienced by firefighters? The procedures for answering the research questions included a literature review and a survey. Results established that the firefighters and officers completing the Stressor Questionnaire self-reported the following stress levels: four respondents (7.7 %) reported low levels of stress; 48 respondents (92.3 %) reported moderate levels of stress; and no respondents (0 %) reported high levels of stress. The study findings were helpful in the development of recommendation for the department’s efforts to identify and address work place stress issues. Recommendations for the department to consider included the following: (1) Mandate psychological testing as an additional requirement for promotional exams. (2) Reassess the current status the department’s peer counselor program. And (3) extend departmental stress management courses and services to firefighters’ immediate family members. The studied fire department in 2002 embarked upon an organizational transformation completely redesigning how the department provides its comprehensive emergency responses services. The outcome of the fire chief’s command directive was the abolishment of a 20-year history of operating two separate chains of command for shift operations: fire suppression and emergency medical services. The department's fire chief’s intention was to accomplish the department’s goal of a unified chain of command” for all line operations. Virtually all of the department’s line and staff job descriptions were completely revised, challenging personnel to expand their job duties and skill sets.  Concurrently with the reorganization, there have been many retirements as employees hired 25-30 years ago are beginning to reach retirement age.

Aging of the U.S. Population and Its Impact on the Health Care System

Dr. Kristina L. Guo, MPH, University of Hawaii-West Oahu, Pearl City, HI

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to describe the impact of seniors on the health care system in the 21^st century.  The aging of the population poses a major challenge to the acute and long term care system. In 2005, 12.4% (36.6 million) of the population was 65 and over. However, this is expected to double in size within the next 25 years. By 2030, almost 1-out-of-5 Americans — some 72 million people — will be 65 years or older.  By 2050, the oldest old are projected to account for 1 out of 4 older adults.  Therefore, the impact of the aging population will result in a heavy burden on the Medicare program.  Medicare is a federal program that primarily finances personal medical services for the aged. In 2005, there were 42.1 million Medicare beneficiaries, and this projected to reach 77.2 million by 2030.  As the aged population increases and lives longer, the potential for requiring long term care services also rises.  Those aged who are impaired will demand services to assist in their activities of daily living; thus, the cost of providing those services will escalate.  Currently, 12% of the population between 64 and 74 require long term care services, compared to almost 70% for the 85 and over age group.  The need for nursing home care increases with age.  However, Medicare does not pay for long term care services.  As a result, this paper argues that changes in the health care system, and especially that of the Medicare program and the long term care system are necessary to provide more adequate benefits and services for the growing aging population in the U.S. There are several major trends in the U.S. health care system which influence the health of the American public and the delivery system.  Trends such as the use of managed care as the dominant delivery system, aging of the population, increased focus on chronic illnesses, the growth of Medicare and Medicaid, and advances in information and medical technology, all play a major role in directing legislative and regulatory reforms. In addition, changes in consumer awareness and education, concerns of payers about costs and quality, and the structure of health care organizations, i.e, hospitals and providers, directly impact the provision, financing and delivery of the health care system.  Although there are several key trends, the purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss one major trend:  the growing population of elders and their increased demand for medical services.  Seniors heavily rely on the Medicare program to finance their health care. 

Change and Continuity in e-Commerce Degree Programs in North America

Dr. Subhash Durlabhji, Northwestern State University of Louisiana, LA

Dr. Marcelline Fusilier, Northwestern State University of Louisiana, LA

ABSTRACT

The present study built on previous research to investigate characteristics of e-commerce master’s degree programs that were newly launched, revised, or remained the same between 2003 and 2007.  Data were collected from university web sites.   Of 90 total programs, 53 were new, 32 were revised, and five remained the same over the period studied.  Findings suggested the coursework of all the programs tended to be non-technical in content.  The non-technical focus appeared more pronounced in e-commerce concentrations than degree programs.  Comparisons to previous literature suggest that the rate of curriculum change may be increasing for e-commerce master’s programs. E-commerce has expanded steadily in the years following the dot-com bust.  Adjusted e-commerce retail sales are up 19.3% in the third quarter of 2007 over the same period for 2006 (U.S.Census Bureau, 2007).  The 2007 online holiday shopping season’s sales surpassed $29 billion, up 19% from 2006 (Lipsman, 2008).  Parallel to this growth, e-commerce education offerings have expanded and changed (Durlabhji & Fusilier, 2002; 2005; Ethridge, Hsu, & Wilson, 2001; Hemaida, Foroughi, & Derr, 2002).  Education is essential for e-commerce to reach its potential.  Bharadwaj and Soni (2007) reported that lack of knowledgeable, qualified personnel is a top barrier facing small business entry to e-commerce. Development of e-commerce education programs is a challenge in part because the field is changing rapidly.  Burkey (2007) investigated 21 e-commerce programs from 2001 to 2005, finding 76% of them revised during that period.  Based on an examination of 107 e-commerce master’s programs, Durlabhji and Fusilier (2005) reported that 39% were revised between 2001 and 2003.  Thirty-six percent of the programs were newly launched during that period.  There is lack of agreement concerning the extent to which e-commerce and more generally, master’s level business curricula, should emphasize technology as opposed to functional business areas.  Recent literature on MBA programs suggested that the curricula of many schools place increasing emphasis on non-technical coursework (Bisoux, 2007; Fisher, 2007).  The Corporate Recruiters Survey (2007) conducted by the Graduate Management Admission Council found that hiring decisions primarily focus on candidates’ interpersonal skills and fit with the company’s culture.  Only 31% of the respondents rated technical skills as extremely important, far less than the 63% who rated interpersonal skills similarly.  Results of a survey of full time MBA students’ satisfaction with core curriculum subjects revealed that the only technical subject on the list, information systems, was ranked at the bottom (Global MBA Graduate Survey, 2007).  Students ranked “knowledge of technology” as the skill that was least improved during their MBA program.  

The Impact of Fast Adaptation Strategy and Knowledge Integration from New Product Successes and Failures on New Product Development Performance: An Empirical Study of ICT Industry in Taiwan

Dr. Yung-Ching Ho, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Yu Chao, National Chiao Tung University, and Chung Hua University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Hui-Chen Fang, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

There is consensus in the marketing literature that fast adaptation strategy is fundamental resource for successful new product development (NPD). However, few studies examine the dimensions or characteristics of fast adaptation strategy and how and why this resource influence new product development performance. The successful strategy of new product development is regarded as benchmark that companies drive to grow and maintenance long-term competitive advantage. Along the fast development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), knowledge economy as foundation by the ICT industry, becomes mainstream of world development. The knowledge gained from NPD failure is often instrumental in achieving subsequent successes. However many studies in the NPD, often neglects the discussion of the knowledge management in comparing the successful and failure projects. This study explores the fast adaptation strategy and the knowledge integration, analyzes the effect of fast adaptation strategy on new product performance through knowledge integration. The results show four conclusions: First, fast adaptation strategy influences NPD performance. Second, Fast adaptation strategy influences knowledge integration. Third, Knowledge integration influences NPD performance. Forth, Fast adaptation strategy influences NPD performance through knowledge integration. New product development (NPD) is central to business prosperity (Womack, Jones, and Roos, 1990; Dougherty, 1992; Brown and Eisenhardt, 1995; Eisenhardt and Tabrizi, 1995). However, new product success remains an elusive goal for many firms (Cooper 1994). The distinction emerges in recent year; the marketing literature has established that NPD performance is enhanced by knowledge integration (Ruekert and Walker 1987; Madhavan and Grover 1998; Maltz and Kohli 2000; De Luca and Atuahene-Gima 2007). For survival and growth, enterprises need to persistently develop successful products. In recent decades, new product competition has changed significantly. Enterprises have come to realize that traditional standards like high product quality, low costs, and differentiation are not enough to guarantee the success of new products (Balbontin, Yazdani, Cooper, and Souder 1999). In most industries, successful development and commercialization of new products are the foundation of a company’s survival and growth (Calantone, Schmidt, and Song 1996). In other words, new products represent a hidden source of competitive advantage (Song and Motoya-Weiss 2001). Over the years, fast adaptation strategy and knowledge integration have emerged as an issue receiving a lot of attention around the world. But how can an enterprise identify and measure its fast adaptation strategy and knowledge integration, and how can they associate with new product development performance? These questions have emerged as points of serious attention.

Integrative Factory, Technology, and Product Planning on the Basis of a System Model

Prof. Peter Nyhuis, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

Serjosha Wulf, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

Prof. Berend Denkena, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

Mark Eikötter, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

ABSTRACT

Factory, technology, and product planning are complex corporate disciplines with highly mutually influential processes and results. The existing interactions between the disciplines, the various life cycles of the planning elements, and various planning dates lead to a high complexity. This makes it difficult for companies to maintain an overview over the ongoing planning processes. In addition noncentral, nonnetworked planning departments lead to nonsynchronized planning processes, which exacerbate the problems. The challenges for a company consist of mastering the ensuing problems and using the existing resources efficiently. This calls for a synchronization of the strategic and operative planning in terms of both content and timetable. To do this, new methods and models have to be devised which are aimed at a holistic coordination of the three planning areas. One promising approach is based on the classic roadmapping method and extends this to form an integrative planning method for the factory, technology, and product areas. The method enables an assessment of the effects of possible decisions in one area on each of the others right from the strategic corporate planning level. An overall understanding of the existing cause-effect relationships between the three areas is necessary for this. A cooperative project between the Institute of Production Systems & Logistics and the Institute of Production Engineering & Machine Tools has developed an initial approach to a holistic influence and assessment model. High market transparency and an increasing dynamic in the business environment have continually intensified the competitive conditions of manufacturing companies in recent years. As a result, companies in high-wage locations such as Europe are losing more and more market share, especially in the mass production sector (Westkämper, 2006b). The increasing demands of customers for products with an individual configuration leads to an increasing number of variants and, simultaneously, falling batch sizes. Unceasing product and process innovations are the only way to compensate for the inherent disadvantages of such locations. As a result, existing manufacturing locations must adapt to changing market demands in ever shorter cycles (Westkämper, 2006a; and Wiendahl, 2006).  

Insurance Demand, Financial Development, and Economic Growth: The Case of Taiwan

Min-Sun Horng, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

Yung-Wang Chang, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Meiho Institute of Technology.

Ting-Yi Wu, Kao Yuan University, Taiwan

Abstract

This study examines the dynamic relationship among insurance demand, financial development, and economic growth in Taiwan from 1961 to 2006. Using a three-variable VAR (vector autoregressive) model, the competing hypotheses of demand-following versus supply-leading are empirically tested. We find that the economic growth affects the insurance demand in both the long and short run, whereas the financial development (measured as the ratio of M2 to GDP) causes variations in the insurance demand mainly in the long run. Additionally, the results from Granger causality test, based on vector error-correction models (VECM), suggest unidirectional causality running from financial development to economic growth. This result supports “the supply-leading hypothesis” link from financial development to economic growth for Taiwan. In contrast, the empirical results also suggest that economic growth lead to increases in insurance demand. This result supports “the demand-following hypothesis” link from economic growth to insurance demand for Taiwan. These finings highlight the importance of financial development in Taiwan’s recent growth. In other word, financial development does promote real GDP growth. Furthermore, in Taiwan, an increase (decrease) in real GDP leads to an increase (decrease) in real insurance demand. Managerial implications are then identified based on the empirical findings. Economic globalization and internet communication have accelerated the integration of world financial markets over the last two decades. From an economic viewpoint, traditional growth theory suggests that though technological development and investment can help economic growth for a nation. However, modern researches indicate that financial services, including banking and insurance, have substantial potential for spreading positive externalities throughout the commercial sector of an economy. Recent theoretical models examined the causal relationship between financial development and economic growth. For instance, “the supply-leading hypothesis” promotes the link from financial development to economic growth. The “demand-following hypothesis” supports the link from economic growth to financial development. (1) Otherwise, some researchers are interested in understanding the determinants of the insurance demand and how it affects general economic development. Moreover, few articles investigated the relationship between insurance demand and financial develop. Hussels et al. (2005) reviewed the related literatures and presented a new concept of the link among insurance demand, financial development, and economic growth. However, the empirical test on the conceptual link among them is not performed to assess the equilibrium relationship and causal relationship of the three variables.

Apple's iPhone Launch: A Case Study in Effective Marketing

Kyle Mickalowski, Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SD

Mark Mickelson, Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SD

Jaciel Keltgen, Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SD

ABSTRACT

When CEO Steve Jobs announced in January 2007 that Apple would be releasing a revolutionary iPhone five months hence, consumers waited with bated breath for a phone that would deliver all the features of their iPods as well as a smart phone. Anticipation grew, just as Jobs knew it would, as June approached. The launch would become one of the most heralded technological product splashes Apple, known for its masterful media build-up, had ever planned. How the iPhone was developed, priced, promoted, and distributed is lesson for marketers around the world. Apple investors were pretty happy with the outcome as well. One year after Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs announced the company’s industry-changing iPhone on January 9, 2007, at the Macworld convention in San Francisco, the share price of Apple’s stock has more than doubled to a January 9, 2008, value of $179.40 (See Chart 1).  This stock price incorporates all of Apple’s business, but a large part of the rise in value can be attributed to the launch of the cutting-edge iPhone, of which four million have already been sold through mid-January 2008 (Carew, 2008).  Based on this simple observation of the stock price, the iPhone can so far be declared a success, at least from a shareholder standpoint.  This paper will explore both the pre- and post-launch activities surrounding the iPhone to explain why it was such a success for the stockholders and why Apple’s reputation for unparalleled marketing success is deserved.  Jobs' announcement was an example of the intelligent use of trade shows and Apple's experience with generating press coverage and buzz about new products through them.  The conference capped off the two-year development period for the iPhone, a period during which Jobs embarked on a campaign to sign a wireless company as the exclusive carrier for the iPhone.  Eventually, he was able to convince AT&T to abandon almost all control over the development of the iPhone to the point where only three executives at AT&T had seen the iPhone before it was announced (Sharma, Wingfield, and Yuan, 2007).  This situation gave Apple the liberty to develop its product on its own terms and to keep its features under tight wraps.  In an industry that changes as rapidly as the wireless communication industry, the ability to be as autonomous and secretive as possible is very important in the development of a product like the iPhone, and Steve Jobs was able to recognize and use it to Apple’s advantage.  The iPhone could be described as a combination of Apple’s popular iPod music player and a smart phone designed to surf the Web. 

The Marketing Concept Implementation, Does it Affect Organizational Culture?

Dr. Richard Murphy, Jacksonville University, FL

Dr. Diana Peaks, Jacksonville University, FL

Dr. John Pope, Jacksonville University, FL

ABSTRACT

Marketing concept has been defined as a marketing philosophy for achieving the organizations goals dependent upon determining the needs, wants of target markets and delivering the desired needs, and wants more effectively and efficiently than competitors does (Kotler & Amstrong, 2001).  According to marketing concept McCarthy & Perreault (1984), organizations implementing the marketing concept can be said to have adopted a market orientation. The work of Kohli & Jaworski (1990) identified the antecedents of a market orientation and the effect of a market orientation on profitability (Naver & Slater, 1990). Some scholars are beginning to stress the relationship between organizational culture and the marketing concept (Deshpande & Parasuraman, 1986). Marketing concept including market orientation and service orientation has been studied since the development of frameworks (Kohli & Jaworski, 1990; Narver & Slater, 1990). Research on the marketing concept has attempted to link market orientation and service orientation to organizational performance, and it has been supported that the marketing concept is highly correlated with performance (Deshpande et al., 1993; Jaworski & Kohli, 1993; Narver & Salter, 1990). Although marketing concept should be an important business philosophy for small organizations as well, marketing concept has not been implemented in International organizations in taking organization size and culture into consideration. This study proposes to examine the influence of organizational size and culture on the implementation of the marketing concept from investigating the International market with focus of small-scale organizations. The study investigated small-scale organizations in Central America. As a result, the profitability of small scale organization depends on an integrated marketing approach including marketing concept, marketing orientation, and service orientation (Dadzie et al, 2002).  Market orientation is an implementation technique of the marketing concept and has received a great deal of attention from marketing scholars. This study addresses the small business perspective on the implementation of a marketing concept by drawing on two antecedents of market orientation, organizational size, and culture. Thus adding to the literature on the interface of market orientation and small business. As a result, the development of market orientation is associated with antecedents and performance consequences of the marketing concept (Kohli & Jaworski, 1990).

Management of Factory Transformability on the Basis of Business Processes

Tobias Heinen, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

Dr. Detlef Gerst, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

Prof. Peter Nyhuis, Institute of Production Systems & Logistics, Leibniz University of Hanover

ABSTRACT

The ability of a factory to change is used these days to present the factory with more security for the future in the turbulent market environment. It is possible to find an answer to turbulence in the environment by modifying machines or extending production areas. Nevertheless, such a purely technology-oriented view does not go far enough because it excludes the players involved in the change, i.e. the factory personnel, who have a considerable influence on the success of an efficient transformation process. It is therefore necessary to add the operations and human resources view to the engineering, and technology view. The Institute of Production Systems & Logistics (IFA) of the Leibniz University of Hanover, Germany, has therefore developed a procedure to describe and manage enhanced transformability in factories. It is based on the derivation of a business process management. Special emphasis is placed on the human resources and organization within the factory, which are hereby incorporated into the transformation of the factory.  These days, businesses are exposed to an environment that is changing ever faster (Wiendahl et al., 2007; and Westkämper, 2006). This is felt particularly hard at the central point of value creation in the business, i.e. the factory. The factory is forced to change constantly in order to adjust to the changing framework conditions. The ability of the factory to change permanently, also beyond predefined limits, is discussed in terms of transformability (Wiendahl et al., 2007; and Dashchenko, 2006). Normally, the discussion takes into account only technology-oriented perspectives, which exclude the factory personnel who must implement and sustain the change. This approach is too shortsighted because it is precisely the personnel who determine the success of the transformability to a large extent. The processes necessary for integrating the personnel into an efficient change within the factory can be modeled by means of business processes.  Against this background, there first follows an overview of the status of research into transformable factories. After the limits of the technology-oriented discussion of the past have been demonstrated, an approach to socio-technical planning and configuration of the transformability based on business process modeling will be described. The manuscript ends with a conclusion and outlook for future activities.  

Valuing an Individual Defined Benefit Pension

Dr. C. Patrick Fort, University of Alaska Anchorage, AK

ABSTRACT

Accountant can play an important role in valuing marital assets during divorce proceedings.  Defined benefit pensions, which may be included in those assets, represent a difficult challenge.  This paper provides step-by-step model for valuing a defined benefit pension using several Excel financial functions. It is a sad but indisputable fact that a significant number of marriages end in divorce.  Accountants may be engaged to value the assets that will be split between the parties.  For many couples one of the most valuable assets the husband or wife may possess is a pension.  Valuing a defined contribution pension usually involves no more than getting a current statement of the investment accounts.  Valuing a defined benefit pension, however, can be quite difficult.  The court or the couple may decide to split the benefits from the pension, or the pension may be treated as another marital asset.  This paper presents a relatively simple method for valuing a defined benefit pension. Defined benefit pensions usually provide a monthly annuity to retirees and may also include health benefits.  The amount of the pension annuity is usually based on a formula that considers years of service and salary levels.  The longer the employee works and the higher the ending salary, the greater the pension payments.  While defined benefit pensions are becoming increasingly rare in the corporate world, they are still quite common for public employees. Bob, a 45 year-old teacher in the local school district where he has worked for 15 years, is getting divorced.  Bob has been married during the full time of his employment.  Bob has a defined benefit pension that will pay him 2% of the average of his three highest earnings years for each year of service.  His pension also includes medical coverage. Bob is eligible to collect his pension and health benefits at age 55.   In determining the value of Bob’s pension, certain questions have to be answered.  The first question is what are the relevant cash flows?  In Bob’s case there are two: the pension payments, which will go directly to him, and the medical insurance which is paid to the provider.  Bob’s pension pays him 2% of the average of his highest three years for each year in the system.  Bob has been in the system for 15 years.  If the average of Bob’s three highest years is $50,000 his pension will pay him $15,000 per year or $1,250 per month. Bob also has health benefits, and finding an appropriate valuation for those benefits can prove to be a little more challenging.  The appropriate cash flows are the plan’s current monthly payments for retirees, although an alternative might be the monthly value of the current employee health benefits assuming they are similar. 

Introduction of the Business Judgment Rule into Croatian Legislation

Dr. Hana Horak, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Kosjenka Dumancic, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT

The business judgment rule has been introduced into Croatian legislation by the latest changes of legislation considering the company law. It is being introduced simultaneously with the introduction of the monistic system and it represents continuous harmonization with legal aquis of EU which has been implemented intensively since 1993 when the Commercial Companies Act, which signified a thorough change in the domain of legal entities in the Republic of Croatia and created conditions for market economy, was adopted. In this paper, the business judgment rule has been analyzed and compared with the earlier regulated standard of business diligence as well as with developed legal practice in such area within the US legal system. The paper outlines analysis of existing condition and debates on application and introduction of the business judgment rule into Croatian judiciary practice that, upon expiry of more than one decade, matured sufficiently in a way to introduce monistic (one tier) organization of bodies and all legal rules arising therefrom. In this paper, authors outline the business judgment rule in the Croatian legislation and compare it with the “business judgment rule“ of the American legal system. The legal standard of business judgment rule is introduced into the Commercial Companies Act (Narodne novine – the Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia, NO. 111/93, 34/99, 52/00, 118/03. 107/07) (hereinafter: CCA) with last amendment (2007), along with already existing standard of business diligence that may be compared with American legal standard „duty of care“. Introduction of the business judgment rule allowed the possibility to members of the management and supervisory boards in dualistic system and management boards in monistic system, to be absolved from liability of making the right business decisions if they acted on an informed basis, in good faith, and in the honest belief that the action taken was in the best interests of the company and, while doing so, did not violate obligations on company’s business managing methods. Thereby, the Croatian company law has continuously been harmonized in accordance with reforms in the EU company law. One of the reasons of introducing the business judgment rule into CCA is giving a choice between monistic and dualistic management systems in joint-stock companies, which was exclusively dualistic prior to latest changes and amendments of CCA. In this way, the progress in development and use of all instruments of corporate management and harmonization of EU rules in national legislation has been achieved.

Consumers at the Age of 65 and Over

Dr. Fatma Zehra Savi, Kastamonu University, Turkey

Nadir Ateşoglu, Kastamonu University, Turkey

Murtaza Onal, HalkBank, Turkey

ABSTRACT

Studies of consumers in Turkey have focused on young consumers. However, when demographic changes in the world and in our country are taken into account, a need for a scientific study of the senior citizens’ market has emerged.  The purchasing habits of senior citizens also deserve more study, because their attitudes about the market, views and experiences are changing as much as other parts of the population. In addition, senior citizens make their own decisions about consumption.  Based on this fact, we studied the consuming habits of consumers 65 years of age and older in Turkey. The data were compiled through a questionnaire administered to 150 people over 65 years of age. The software program SPSS 11.5 was used to analyze the data. According to the results of the study, senior consumers’ most important priority is their health and the most important characteristic of products and services for senior citizens is reliability. Senior citizens spend most of their time with their children and spend most of their income on their grandchildren.  The world is facing demographic changes.  The world’s population is rapidly growing older. There are more than 600 million people over 65 in the world. This figure is expected to rise to 2 billion in the coming 30 years, and this trend is predicted to continue for 30 to 40 years. This means that consumers who are 65 years of age and over will determine what they will eat, wear, read, drive, how they will entertain, and where they will live and travel.  In a traditional sense, marketing experts prefer to focus on young people. However, since the beginning of the 1990s, especially in Europe and the USA, important changes have taken place in the buying patterns of older consumers. A growing number of companies has realized the importance of senior consumers and have initiated marketing programs for reaching them.  Another trend is the growing importance of products and services designed to reach this market.  According to the Turkish Statistical Institute, Turkey’s population was 70 million in December of 2007. Among this population, 7.1% is 65 or over. This percentage is expected to rise of 17% in 2025 and to 30% in 2050. When Turkey’s large population and its demographic features are considered, senior people will comprise a big market. Although the senior population in USA and Europe has attracted much academic attention, this has not been the case in Turkey.  Senior consumers are usually defined as people 65 or over.

Strategic Evolution: Fact or Facade?

Faiza Muhammad, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

The ‘strategic evolution’ construct is presented as a true depiction of organizational change’s reality. It establishes that, owing to the connectionism within the complex adaptive organizational systems, all changes not only incorporate systemic memory, accumulative learning and path dependencies but also carry environmental implications, strategic tones and cascade-effects. The adaptive competence of a firm is, therefore, seen as resting on its ability to balance structure and spontaneity of change programs, which in turn helps it achieve the rare mix of system fit and flexibility. A TST-HPWS framework of strategically evolving organizations that can optimally achieve this mix is also presented. The framework proposes a system design that not only ensures tight internal/horizontal and external/vertical fit but also ensures dynamic tweaking of this fit, with increasing agility.  The pervasive hitherto paradoxical nature of organizational change has enthused a juxtaposed surge in the change management field, from perspectives as diverse as psychology, philosophy, social sciences, complexity science, strategic management and organizational studies etc. Not surprisingly, then, the existing literature presents theories and interpretations of organizational change that appear conflicting and inconsistent on the surface, atleast (Van de Ven and Poole, 1988, 1995). In addition, the conceptual realm within change management research comprises a complex labyrinth of classifying constructs such as types (Bartunek and Moch, 1987), levels (Weick and Quinn, 1999), approaches (Druhl et al, 2001), scope (Nadler and Tushman, 1989, 1995a), pace (Miller & Friesen, 1984; Gordon et al, 2000), order (Bateson, 1972) and linearity (Mezias et al., 1993) of change. More often than not, however, these criteria reinforce a single taxonomy tagging organizational change either as strategically intended or continuously emergent. This conception of change is supplemented with prolific labels such as radical versus incremental (Mezias et al, 1993; Burnes, 1992; Johnson and Scholes, 1993; Goodstein and Warner, 1997; Dewar and Dutton, 1986; Ettlie, Bridges, and O'Keefe; 1984; Nord and Tucker, 1987; Watzlawick et al, 1974), episodic versus continuous (Weick and Quinn 1999, Pettigrew et al., 2001), morphogenetic versus morphostatic (Smith, 1990), strategic versus non-strategic (Pettigrew, 1987;

Web Advertising Beliefs and Attitude: Internet Users’ View

Norzalita Abd Aziz, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi

Dr. Norjaya Mohd Yasin, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi

Dr.  Sharifah Latifah Syed A. Kadir, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur

ABSTRACT

The digital age has already made significant changes to each of the elements of the promotion mix. Companies increasingly see the Internet as an important medium through which advertising messages can be directed towards consumers. In the 21^st century, consumers gave more control over advertising exposure with web advertising because they can select how much commercial content they wish to view. However, very little is known in consumer beliefs about Web advertising, attitude toward Web advertising or Web advertising associated with consumer behaviour in Malaysia. By adopting and applying Korgaonkar, Silverbatt and O’Leary’s measurements, this paper explores Web users’ beliefs, attitude and use of Web advertising.  The descriptive statistic, cross tabulation and factor analysis results as well as implications on the findings is discussed. The digital age has already made significant changes to each of the elements of the promotions mix.  Companies increasingly see the Internet as an important medium through which advertising messages can be directed towards consumers.  Strauss and Frost (2001) explained that marketing communications consisting of sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing and advertising comprise an important of e-commerce strategy, where electronic marketers use these tools to create brand awareness, preference and selection. Web advertising appears to be the most important influence on the future of the advertising industry within 10-15 years (Ducoffe, 1996). Internet is a communication medium, allowing companies to create awareness, provide information and influence attitudes. Advertising on the web can be useful in creating awareness of an organization as well as its specific product and services offerings. It also offers the opportunity to create awareness well beyond what might be achieved through traditional media (Belch and Belch, 2001). In the 21^st century, consumers have more control over advertising exposure with web advertising because they can select how much commercial content they wish to view. Consumers can gather pricing information, participate in product design, explore promotions, arrange delivery, sales and receive post-purchase support.  Advertising is one of the main approaches firms employ to manage demand risk by raising awareness of their products. In the mid 1990s, the World Wide Web emerged as a new tool for reaching consumers and provides a variety of technologies for influencing opinions, and wants (Boudreau and Watson, 2006). There is still minimal published research available on consumer’s evaluation of web advertising.

‘How We Do Things Around Here’:  Implications of Corporate Culture On Job Performance

Raida Abu Bakar, University of Malaya

Dr. Abdul Latif Salleh, University of Malaya

Lee Chee Ling, University of Malaya

ABSTRACT

The effects of corporate culture on organisational performance have taken centre stage as most of the concerns on organisations ultimately comes down to the profit margin and success that they could achieved.  Hofstede and Bond (1988) suggest that the power behind the economic rise of the East Asian’s economy, which outperforms its Western counterparts, has more to do with its cultural practices. This study identifies the influence of corporate culture on job performance among executives in Malaysia.  Findings confirmed that competitive culture shows significant relationship with job performance. This finding can assist managers in defining the appropriate management development in their organisations to improve the employees’ job performance and ultimately the organisational performance. Organisational culture has caught the interest of researchers since 1980s as a result of its effects and potential impact on organisational success (Sheridan, 1992; Clement, 1994; Abdul Rashid et al., 2003; Li, 2004).  Lim (1995) comments that a major obstacle in investigating his research on organisational performance and culture appears to be related to the application of the term “organisational culture”. The author reports that the definitional problem, as well as difficulties in the measurement of organisational culture, seems to have contributed to the inconclusiveness of the research.  The above remark is supported by O’Reilly (2001) who explains that failure in clearly defining the culture will result in confusion, misunderstanding and conflict about its basic function and importance.  As a matter of fact, Abdul Rashid et al. (2003) argue that the importance of identifying the nature and type of corporate culture is to elicit the key values, beliefs and norms in an organisation that has been proven to give much impetus to the success and superior performance of the organisation.  The beginnings of formal writing on the concept of organisational culture started with Pettigrew (1979) and Siew Kim and Yu (2004).  Pettigrew (1979) introduces and illustrates some concepts of the more cultural and expressive aspects of organisational life that are widely used in sociology and anthropology.  He approaches it through the concepts of symbol, language, ideology, belief, ritual and myth.  Each of these is symbolic in the special sense that taps into and is expressive of the “deeper layers of meaning” that are inherent in all human forms of organisation and of culture itself (Dandridge et al., 1980). 

The Role of Perceived Equity in Relationship Quality and Relationship Outcomes:

An Investigation of Retail Loyalty Programmes in Malaysia

Nor Asiah Omar, University Tun Abdul Razak, Malaysia

Dr. Rosidah Musa, University Technology Mara, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper is positioned to determine the effects of programme perceived equity and relationship quality on relationship outcomes. Building upon extant literature review, relationship quality is conceptualised as a higher order construct comprising of programme satisfaction and programme trust. This study endeavour to impart insightful explanations of the influence of relationship quality on relationship outcomes based on two abstraction levels of loyalty: loyalty to the programme and loyalty to the store. The data set utilised in this study has been collected via drop-off and collect technique. Consumption behaviour of 400 retail loyalty programmes’ members in Malaysia was analysed. A comprehensive conceptual model was developed and tested by structural equation modelling using AMOS 6 programme. The findings unveil that programme satisfaction significantly influenced loyalty towards the programme but not store loyalty, whereas programme trust has significant impacts on both programme card loyalty and store loyalty. The discussion of these findings reveals important directions for future research and management practise. Relationship marketing which specifically emphasised on the management of customer relationships in business is not a new phenomenon (Berry, 1995; Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995). Evidently, it had a major impact on marketing activities including increased customer cooperation, increased purchases and decreased customer defection (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). The growing interest in relationship marketing led to numerous attempts to measure the quality of a relationship. Fundamentally, a relationship may be seen to exist when both parties mutually perceive that the relationship exists and the relationship must be characterised by a special status (Barnes, 1997). Relationship quality has been found to have an influence on several important relationship outcomes across business-to-business and business-to-consumer domains. For example, a buyer perception of relationship quality has a significant and positive effect towards relationship outcomes such as purchase intentions (Hewett et al., 2002); word of mouth and loyalty (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2002). Cronin and Taylor (1992) postulate that the link between relationship quality and profitable outcomes was strongly consistent with characteristics of attitudes measures. In a similar vein, Huntley (2005) demonstrate that when the quality of the relationship is high, customers are more willing to recommend the seller’s offerings to colleagues and they are likely to purchase more from the seller.

Profit-Making Ability Measurement in International Tourist Hotel

Dr. Ling-Feng Hsieh, Institute of Technology Management, Chung Hua University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Shih-Ming Hsu, Institute of Technology Management, Chung Hua University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

This paper makes a measurement on the operational performance of the international tourist hotel industry in terms of its profit-making ability. The principles and standards for measuring the profit-making ability of the international tourist hotel industry are raised in this paper so as to establish a measurement model on the profit-making ability of international tourist hotel industry. For empirically improving the feasibility and accuracy of the measurement model on the profit-making ability of international tourist hotel industry, this study takes the international tourist hotels in Taipei area as its targets. We apply the profit-making ability measurement model to assess the profit-making ability of the 24 international tourist hotels in Taipei. Furthermore, we also make discussions on the relationships between the profit-making ability and market share. The results obtained by this study will be offered to the international tourist hotels for reference in operational strategies. The results show that market share and profit-making ability of the hotel industry are significantly and positively related.  Such results act as important reference for the international tourist hotel industry in its operational strategies in the future.  In recent years, the tourism industry has been regarded as non-chimney industry which can facilitate fast economic development by many countries in the world. The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) predicts that the economic effects brought by developing the tourism industry will obviously be increasing in the future 10 years. Therefore, the tourism industry will inevitably play an important role in the future development of global economy.  As the global tourism industry develops rapidly, the number of international tourist hotels continues increasing. The competition in the future international tourist hotel industry will become more drastic. With the measurement on the operational performance shown by the international tourist hotels, it would be helpful for the industry to set industrial strategies for facing the highly competitive environment. Reviewing the historic literature relating to the operational performance shown by hotels, it is found that most scholars measured the performance of hotels in terms of efficiency.

An Application of Hedging Fuel Price Risk in the Canadian Department of National Defence

Dr. Naceur Essaddam, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Derek Miller, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to study an application of private sector commodity hedging techniques in the Canadian Department of National Defence.  The existing literature on the subject of financial risk management focuses almost exclusively on private sector motivations and rationale, with little attention to hedging in the public sector.  The paper develops a rationale for the potential usefulness of hedging in the public sector based on reducing the volatility of cash flows and thereby improving budgeting and forecasting capabilities.  This achieves a more optimal allocation of resources, as the size of the fuel budget surplus or deficit at the end of the year is minimized.  The allocation is more efficient because it decreases the likelihood of pursuing low priority projects in the case of a surplus or taking away from high priority projects in the case of a fuel budget deficit.  The methodology uses futures and call options contracts traded on NYMEX to hedge fifty percent of aviation fuel purchases at one Air Force base, 8 Wing Trenton for a two year period.  The results show that such a strategy can reduce the standard deviation of the monthly purchase price, indicating the potential benefits of hedging within the Air Force.  This paper examines the effects of applying financial risk management strategies in a public sector environment, more specifically the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND).  DND is a government institution mandated to defend Canadian sovereignty, interests, and values and to enhance international peace and security.  The Canadian Air Force is one of three elements, along with the Army and the Navy, fulfilling various tasks associated with this mandate.  DND defines its main elements of risk in the publication, Integrated Strategic Risk Management in Defence (Treasury Board Secretariat, 2001).  These elements are at the strategic level and are closely aligned to the uncertainties of environment, industry, and firm specific categorized for private firms (Miller, 2002).