The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge is indexed in the CABELL'S, and ULRICH'S DIRECTORIES of Refereed Publications.   The primary goal of the journal will be to provide opportunities for business related academicians and professionals from various business related fields in a global realm to publish their paper in one source. The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge will bring together academicians and professionals from all areas related business fields and related fields to interact with members inside and outside their own particular disciplines. The journal will provide opportunities for publishing researcher's paper as well as providing opportunities to view other's work.  All submissions are subject to a two person blind peer review process.

The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge is published two times a year, March and September.  The e-mail: drsenguder@aol.com; Website, www.jaabc.com  Requests for subscriptions, back issues, and changes of address, as well as advertising can be made via the e-mail address above. Manuscripts and other materials of an editorial nature should be directed to the Journal's e-mail address above. Address advertising inquiries to Advertising Manager.

Earnings Predictability: Do Analysts Make Coverage Choices Based on Ease of Forecasts?

Bruce Branson, Ph.D. and Donald Pagach, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

This paper investigates determinants of security analyst following.  It builds on prior research in this area by investigating two important earnings-related variables that should be of interest to the analyst community—earnings persistence and earnings predictability.  We find that earnings persistence is significantly positively associated with the level of security analyst coverage while the predictability of earnings is found to be negatively associated with analyst following.  We also include control variables for firm size (market capitalization) and include a group of firms that have escaped research attention in prior studies—those that have an analyst following of zero.  The use of the tobit model allows for inclusion of these firms.  Bhushan (1989), O’Brien and Bhushan (1990) and Brennan and Hughes (1991) have identified specific firm characteristics that they find to be associated with either the level of security analyst following or year-to-year changes in analyst following or both.  This paper extends this research by examining additional earnings-related firm-specific variables that are found to be significantly associated with aggregate analyst coverage decisions.  Drawing upon findings in the so-called “earnings response coefficient” literature, we argue that analysts have an incentive to identify and follow those firms whose time-series properties reveal historically persistent earnings innovations and less predictable earnings patterns.  Controls for firm size are included based on prior research.

Nations’ Socio-Economic Potentials: Development, Growth, Public Policies, and Welfare

Dr. Ioannis N. Kallianiotis

ABSTRACT

In this, mostly general equilibrium and philosophical work, the paper tries to point out some of the existing problems in our world, today. It considers the social and economic potentials for our governments and our people, together with their conflicting objectives and suggests a few long-term remedies, which will contribute to nations’ development and growth and persons’ well-being. The countries’ growth objective, their long-term development and growth and society’s welfare and individuals’ utility functions are emphasized, subject to the endowments of factors, technology, tastes, risk, moral, ethical, and just social constraints. At the end, a lot of discussion is made about governments, public policies, control and regulations, value system, and a few suggestions on new humanitarian, social, political, economic, financial, and philosophical frontiers are given.   The problems of our world today are not strictly economic, as many try to present them, but are mostly social, political, philosophical, moral, and ethical ones.2 The magnitude of these problems is so enormous and their solution so hard because we do not depend on our leaders to solve them dynamically, but on some “invisible powers” (we do not even have a name for them) who ignore humans, nations, values, virtues, justice,3 and purpose of our existence and independently of these social constraints (values), they try with all their inhumane means to maximize some “social values” and minimize some “social costs”.

Decolonization and International Trade: The Cote D’ivoire’s Case

Dr. Albert J. Milhomme

ABSTRACT

Many countries, former colonies of some colonial powers, have acceded in the past century to their political independence.  What about their economic independence?  A measure of this independence could be reflected in the evolution of their international trade, exports and imports.  This study is centered on the evolution of the international trade of Cote d’Ivoire, a former colony of France.  For more or less half a century, many countries, former colonies of some colonial power like Great Britain or France, have acceded to their political independence. What about their economic independence? A measure of this economic independence could be in the today pattern of their international trade, exports as well as imports. This study, centered on Cote d’Ivoire (also known unofficially as Ivory Coast for some English speaking people), a former colony of France, might put some light on the rate of the evolution and the achievement or non-achievement of this economic independence.  In 1960, as a colony of France, Cote d’Ivoire did import 65% of its imports from France and did export to France 67% of its exports. France had then at that time, a dominant position, a position which was the result of a century of effort to create and protect trade. Cote d’Ivoire was a main customer of France in term of imports and a main supplier of France in term of exports.  Has France kept a dominant position in Cote d’Ivoire today, 43 years after the independence?

How Corporate Sport Sponsorship Impacts Consumer Behavior

Kevin Mason, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

Corporate sport sponsorship is one of the many tools marketers have at their disposal to try and reach consumers and influence them to buy their products and yet one of the least discussed forms of marketing communications addressed in the marketing literature. A key to effective sponsorship is the understanding of how consumer attitudes are formed and change. It is the purpose of this conceptual piece to examine the relationship between sponsorship and attitudes.  Attitudes are comprised of enduring cognitive (beliefs), affective (evaluative emotional attachments), and behavior tendencies towards an object. As such, attitudes have a strong impact on consumer behavior. Attitudes can then be changed by altering one or more of the three components. Sponsorship seems to affect the affective component of an attitude by creating a positive association between the consumer’s sport team and the company’s product. However sponsorship can also affect the attitudinal cognitive component by altering brand beliefs/perceptions. It should be noted though that leveraging activities are helpful when dealing with cognitive changes. Regardless, the ultimate goal of corporate sponsorship is to change the entire attitude resulting in positive behaviors (e.g., shopping and purchases).

An Artificial Intelligence Stock Classification Model

Dr. Probir Roy

ABSTRACT

Using MATLAB's Perceptron model, this paper presents an attempt to train a neural network distinguish between   acceptable and   unacceptable purchases of   publicly traded stock. In the past, Perceptron models have been used, quite successfully, in similar classification exercises. The input vectors used in training the network and in making the classifications in our model, involve readily available financial data like current ratio; quick ratio; gross margin as a percentage; sales/asset turnover; and earnings per share. The initial results of our analysis were quite encouraging insofar as the model had a ninety percent prediction accuracy using held-back test data. On the basis of our initial success, we are currently trying to extend this model to a "forward-looking" investment decision process model.  Neural networks are constructed using a large number of simple processing units (analogous to neurons in the brain) that are interconnected at various levels. The behavior in these networks emerges, iteratively, using parallel processing. In some more complicated networks this development of “intelligence” may involve massive parallel processing.  A single input neuron is shown in Figure 1. The scalar input p is multiplied by the scalar weight w to form wp. This term is sent to the “summer”, å, where it is coupled with a “bias” input b.

Managing Stakeholders Interests in Turbulent Times:  A Study of Corporate Governance of Canadian Firms

Peter A. Stanwick, Ph.D. and Sarah D. Stanwick, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

The focus of this paper is to examine whether Canadian firm are following strong corporate governance programs during these turbulent times. A sample of 32 firms was taken from the largest publicly traded firms in Canada. The corporate governance disclosures of these firms were compared with the 14 guidelines required by the Toronto Stock Exchange. Those results showed that the vast majority of firms followed the 14 guidelines. However, some industries groupings held higher compliance rates than other industries. In addition, fewer firms overall and across each industry went beyond the required standard to of corporate governance compliance.  Due to the turbulent nature of the global economic marketplace, the role of corporate governance has changed significantly over the past two decades. Although originally established as a legal requirement for incorporation, corporate governance has become a valuable connection between firms and various stakeholders (Vinten 1998). Corporate governance is required to guarantee that the interests of both public and private sector organizations who have a vested interest in the firm are satisfied. Corporate governance helps in enhancing the confidence level for all relevant stakeholders including stockholders, customers, suppliers, employees and the government. The major focal point for corporate governance has been and will continue to be the Board of Directors.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of the Tenure/Promotion Policies at Business Colleges and Schools

Nessim Hanna, Ph.D., Ralph Haug, Ph.D., and Alan Krabbenhoft, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an empirical study of tenure and promotion policies at institutions of higher education that offer postsecondary and graduate degrees in business.   The sample was from business professors attending the Midwest Business Administration Association (MBAA) conference in Chicago in 2003.   The findings suggest that the presence or absence of faculty research support systems at business schools and colleges is the cornerstone in determining a school’s prominence.  The research also suggests that the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that a faculty member has towards the policy of promotion/tenure at his/her institution as well as towards the institution itself is highly correlated with the extent of the research support systems present at a school.  This paper investigates the role of the tenure/promotion philosophies maintained by administrators in institutions of higher education, and the long-term impact of such philosophies on a school’s reputation, as well as the satisfaction of its faculty members.  This research was undertaken with two objectives in mind.  The first was to empirically demonstrate that the presence or absence of faculty research support systems that administrators may implement at an institution of higher education are the cornerstone in determining a school’s prominence.  Such administrative actions or lack of them, create one of two scenarios; either a team of satisfied faculty members who puts forward a respectable publication record, leading the school to be perceived as a “research” institution, or conversely, leads to a group of dissatisfied faculty members who feel helpless, and blame the system for their lack of progress.  In this latter case, scarcity of published work results mainly in a “teaching” school status.  These outcomes seem to suggest that the principle of self-fulfilling prophecy is at work where a school’s distinction and reputation are based on its administrative philosophy regarding the extent of faculty support provided.

The Trade-Off Between R&D and Marketing Spending for High-Technology Companies

Dr. Kenneth Ko

ABSTRACT

Significant work has been done to show the importance of R&D spending to sales.  In this paper, I further this discussion through focusing on how the trade-off spending decision between R&D and marketing should be done.  I focus on high-technology companies where R&D is of critical importance.  I introduce a simple mathematical model which analyzes the impact that R&D and marketing spending have on sales.  I present the strategy that, relatively speaking, a company should spend more than its competitors on R&D (as opposed to marketing).  The model and the effectiveness of the strategy are demonstrated and verified through three case studies involving six high-technology companies:  1.  Intel and AMD  2.  Cisco Systems and Nortel Networks  3.  Xilinx and Altera.  R&D managers can use the mathematical model, strategy, and case studies to show the need for and thus motivate increased R&D spending within their companies.   Every year, companies need to make important budgeting decisions that will affect future sales, and thus the future success of the company.  These decisions are never easy to make, and always involve trade-offs.  Because a dollar spent somewhere is a dollar not spent somewhere else.  For high-technology companies, which are highly dependent on R&D, perhaps the key budgeting trade off is between R&D and marketing.  Of course, another key question is how much should a company allocate in total to R&D and marketing.  In this paper, I will examine the trade-off spending decision between R&D and marketing.  I focus on high-technology companies where R&D is of critical importance.

The Grey Relational Evaluation of the Manufacturing Value Chain

Dr. Yuan-Jye Tseng

Yu-Hua Lin

ABSTRACT

As the market is changing more rapidly, a corporation is required to speed the rollout of new products within the shortest time to capture market shares. To meet the demand for diverse and small quantity production, a corporation needs to spend much effort in creating a collaborative commerce model of the manufacturing value chain for cutting product design time as well as enhancing the production capability and cost competitiveness.  This study, which is designed to address the decision-making problems with the production chain value and integrate deployment of manufacturing resources, can be distinguished into three stages. The corporation, in the first stage, should be willing to join suppliers for preliminary screening of production capacity and technology. And, in the second, it demands several samples test-produced and sets inspection items for retrieved samples to acquire evaluation data. In the third stage, the corporation selects beneficial suppliers, from analysis results using the evaluation data related to the grey relational analysis, to build an efficient manufacturing value chain. The final section of the article, we demonstrate a case study to explain the operating procedures for the evaluation model. The study result finds that the model is effective for supplier management economic analysis and is available for creating a collaborative commerce model based on the manufacturing value chain.

Negotiation Process Improvement Between Two Parties: A Dynamic Conflict Analysis

Ching-Chow Yang and Mo-Chung Tien

ABSTRACT

The conflict process is a dynamic phenomenon. Negotiation is used to solve conflicts between parties. It is a “solution process” and reaching an optimal agreement is the ultimate goal for negotiation between two parties. A rational conflict resolution will be achieved if the decision maker could understand the probable evolution process for the conflict situation under a given option. In this paper, a dynamic conflict analysis (DCA) approach between two parties was developed and used to analyze two cases. Analysis reveals that the players could grasp at the trajectory of the option changes between the two parties by observing the negotiation process, and could quick knowing the possible outcome for different options before the negotiation or at the duration of negotiation at once and timely adjusting the options if can’t reaching an optimal agreement because it could be simulated repeatedly.   Negotiation is used to solve disputes or conflicts between parties and it’s a solution process. Many types for the conflict as armed conflict are likely to break out between the two countries, the political affairs between two parties, the dispute between labor and capital, the conflict between natural resources exploiting and environmental protection, and such business problems as a patent conflict, trade agreement between the two companies or two countries are also important domain for the conflict in global competition environment. Any sort of the problem as the competition, antagonism, different opinions are likely to bring the crisis of the conflict. Therefore, to reconcile the conflict between the two parties is essential in order to achieve an agreement.

Spirituality in the Workplace: Developing an Integral Model and a Comprehensive Definition

Dr. Joan Marques, Dr. Satinder Dhiman, and Dr. Richard King

ABSTRACT

A new awareness has been stirring in workers’ souls for at least 10 years now: a longing for a more humanistic work environment, increased simplicity, more meaning, and a connection to something higher.  There are many reasons for this mounting call, varying from the escalating downsizing and layoffs, reengineering, and corporate greed of the 1980s to the enhanced curiosity about eastern philosophies, the aging of the baby boomers, greater influx of women in the workplace, and the shrinking global work village.   Straight through the varying opinions about what spirituality at work really entails, there appear to be a set of common themes that almost all sources seem to agree upon.  This paper presents a list of these themes; a comprehensive definition and an integral model of spirituality in the workplace, for consideration of future researchers in this field; and some practical strategies for corporate leaders interested in nurturing the spiritual mindset.  This paper presents a brief exploration of a new paradigm that is emerging in business – Spirituality in the Workplace. This new awareness has been stirring in workers’ souls for at least 10 years now: a longing for a more humanistic work environment, increased simplicity, more meaning, and a connection to something higher.  Although there is diversity in opinions about what spirituality at work really entails, there appear to be a set of common themes that almost all sources seem to agree upon.  After surveying the current literature in search of these common themes, this paper presents a comprehensive definition and an integral model of spirituality in the workplace, as well as some practical strategies for corporate leaders interested in nurturing the spiritual mindset.

The Case Analysis on Failures of Enterprise Internal Control in Mainland China

Ta-Ming Liu

ABSTRACT

The establishment of a well-designed internal control mechanism has become a legislative requirement for enterprises and has won a widespread support and participation from enterprises around the world.  A proper and complete mechanism of internal control can not only insure the adding and retaining of asset value, boost the economical efficiency for the enterprises, but also help achieving strategic goals of the enterprises.  In Mainland China, however, the reality of enterprise internal control does not quite measure up to the standard.  Most of the enterprises in China have not yet accomplished the building-up of an effective internal control mechanism, while some of the enterprises do not even have one.  The lack of internal control leads to the destruction for some of the enterprises eventually.  Through the case analysis of enterprises in Mainland China, the revealing evidence shows a worsen situation in which that fiscal misconduct, fraudulent financial reporting, illegal activity and law-breaking behavior exist far more commonly in enterprises and business sectors of Mainland China’s.  Thus, how to establish and implement internal control in enterprises and boost the efficiency and effectiveness of its operation are the subjects that require further and detailed study.  This paper uses Asia Enterprise as the example to discuss the reasons of internal control failures and proposes suggestions on improving them.

Five Competitive Forces in China’s Automobile Industry

Zhao Min, Ph.D. Candidate

ABSTRACT

China’s automobile market posted very rapid growth in recent years, and it was the third biggest automobile market in the world in 2003. Because China’s large market draws many foreign automobile actors, how to be successful in the competition in China is an essential question for Multinational Enterprises (MNE). This paper will attempt to define the conditions of competition for MNEs in China through the industrial competitive framework of Porter, and to demonstrate how it influences the MNE strategy and competitive position. In particularly, this paper provides a comparison of the competitive position of American, European, and Japanese automobile multinationals in China.  In the past ten years, the production of motor vehicles in China has seen an average annual growth rate of 15 percent, compared to a world average of 1.5 percent in the same period. China produced 4.4 million vehicles in 2003 (OIAC 2004) with a growth of 35 percent from 2002, becoming the fourth biggest vehicle manufacturer in the world, just after United States, Japan, and Germany. Rising consumer wealth levels have been a major contributory factor to the sudden explosion in the car market. According to the world market research center, Chinese consumers' purchasing power has risen to $5,500, which has historically been the level of car consumption in other markets. With 4.5 million vehicles sold in 2003, China now is the fourth biggest automobile market in the world (WMRC 2004). Several institutes argue that China’s vehicle market is set to almost double until 2008, challenging Japan for its position as the world's second-largest auto market.  China’s big market draws many of foreign automobile actors. Almost all of the world’s top automobile assemblers and suppliers have invested in China, with Volkswagen, PSA, General Motor, Delphi, Visteon, Valeo, and Man as early entrants, and Honda, Toyota, Nissan, Hyundai, and Denso coming in later. The competition is becoming increasingly fierce. With all the world’s leading global automakers ramping up production in a bid to dominate the local market, the tensions have begun to mount among foreign automobile enterprises.

Trademark Value and Accounting Performance: Analysis from Corporate Life Cycle

Dr. C. L. Chin

Dr. S. M. Tsao and H. Y. Chi

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study is to examine whether the association between trademarks and a firms’ performance is a function of firm lifecycle stage. Following Anthony and Ramesh (1992), this paper classifies year-firms into various lifecycle portfolios using dividend payout ratio, sales growth, capital expenditure, and the firm age. Consistent with our prediction, the results document a monotonic decline in the response coefficients of trademarks from their growth to the stagnant stages. This paper also used the Seethamraju (2000) model to estimate trademark value and find that estimated trademark values also monotonically decrease from the early to later lifecycle stages.  Understanding the value of intangible assets has become increasingly important in the “new economy”. Accounting literature on intangible assets focuses primarily on valuation, value relevance, and recognition of intangible assets on financial statement. Under generally accepted accounting principles (hereafter GAAP), most intangible assets, which are of substantial economic assets, are typically unrecognized in the financial statement as accounting assets. However, a growing body of literature documents that non-financial information about intangible assets, such as R&D (Lev and Sougiannis, 1996; Chan and Lakonishok, 2001), advertisement expenses (Landes and Rosenfield, 1994), patents (Griliches, Pakes and Hall, 1987), customer satisfaction (Ittner and Larler, 1998), and brand (Barth er al., 1998; Kallapur and Kwan, 2004), plays a significant role in determining a firm’s performance or value.

The Impact of Floating Thai Baht on Export Volumes:  A Case Study of Major Industries in Thailand

Dr. Lugkana Worasinchai, Bangkok University, Thailand

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of exchange rate movements on the export volumes of Thai major industries which are jewelry, textile, automotive, food, and software industries under new exchange rate regime. The 1997's financial woe in Asian region and the export sector coming to a stage of halt were partially caused by the change in the exchange rate system, which adversely affected Thailand's competitiveness during the change period. Econometric time series model is utilized to analyze monthly time series data. The sample data covers from July 1997, the beginning date of managed float regime in Thailand, to April 2004. The result suggests that the movement of exchange rate impacts to the movement of export volume of software industries in the same direction. The result implies that the depreciations (appreciation) of Thai baht will increase (decrease) the export volume of software industry. However, the result indicates that changing of exchange rate will not affect to export volumes of jewelry, textile, automotive, and food industries. The face of today's international trade environment changes greatly from that of the recent past. Globalization has brought with its a fierce competition from international rivals. The world's aggregated export volume has grown enormously, from US$20,000 million in 1913 to US$154,000 million in 1963, US$6,473,000 million in 1997, and US$8,000,000 in 2003. Comparing the world's total trade volume to the growth rate of the world's total productivity, it can be concluded that the world's total trade volume grew at the rate of 1.5 times compared to that of the world's total productivity. This statistical figure indicated that the increased productivity of each country was utilized to serve the increased market demand, which varied greatly from country to country, or even within the same country in terms of the value attached to the product quality and the production process. Consequently, another vital competitive factor determining the business sector's success is an ability to respond to these varying consumer needs in each country. (Arize,1995)

The Dynamic Relationship and Pricing of Stocks and Exchange Rates: Empirical Evidence from Asian Emerging Markets

Dr. Shuh-Chyi Doong and Dr. Sheng-Yung Yang, National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan

Dr. Alan T. Wang, National Cheng Kung University Taiwan, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the dynamic relationship and pricing between stocks and exchange rates for six Asian emerging financial markets. We find that stock prices and exchange rates are not cointegrated. Using Granger causality tests, bi-directional causality can be detected in Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand. Except for Thailand, the stock returns exhibit significantly negative relation with the contemporaneous change in the exchange rates. It implies that the currency depreciation accompanies with a fall in the stock prices. The conditional variance-covariance process of changes of stock prices and exchange rates is time-varying. The results are crucial for international portfolio management in the Asian emerging markets and also of particular importance for testing international pricing theories as misspecifications could lead to false conclusions.  Given the increasing trend toward globalization in financial markets, a substantial amount of research has been devoted to the investigation of the correlation of stock returns across international markets. Eun and Shim (1989), Hamao et al. (1990), and Bekaert and Harvey (1996), among others, investigate the dynamics of international stock movements, and find significant cross-market interactions. These empirical findings are of interest for two reasons. First, portfolio theory suggests that if the stock returns between markets are negatively correlated, investors should be able to reduce their risk through international diversification. However, if countries’ stock returns are positively covarying, it is possible to use the information in one market to predict the movement in the other market. Second, the Asian emerging markets had policy and regulation changes in recent years to facilitate cross-border investing. The expected returns from the investment in foreign stocks are determined by changes in local stock price and currency value. If the effect of exchange risk does not vanish in well-diversified portfolios, exposure to this risk should command a risk premium. Therefore, the interaction between currency value and stock price is an important determinant of global investment returns.

The Effects of Repatriates’ Overseas Assignment Experiences on Turnover Intentions

Ching-Hsiang Liu, Ph.D., National Formosa University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

In today’s global marketplace, it is critical for Taiwanese multinational corporations to remain competitive in the area of international human resource management. This study is taken in an effort to determine if repatriates overseas assignment experiences will affect Taiwanese repatriates’ intentions to leave their organization. Overseas assignment experiences include number of repatriates’ overseas assignments, length of most current overseas assignment, time return from the overseas assignment, host country of most current assignment, and family accompany during the overseas assignment. By building on the repatriation adjustment and turnover theories and researches, this study expanded these recent findings to Taiwanese repatriates. The study results indicated that number of repatriates’ overseas assignments, time return from the overseas assignment, and family accompany during the overseas assignment were found to be significantly related to repatriates’ intent to leave the organization. Length of most current overseas assignment and host country of most current assignment were not related to intent to leave. The implications for international corporations of these results are discussed in detail. This study may help multinational organizations in Taiwan to enhance the international assignment process of their employees and keep valuable human capital within the organization.

Prepare for E-Generation: The Fundamental Computer Skills of Accountants in Taiwan

Dr. Yu-fen Chen, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The study aimed to explore the fundamental computer skills of accountants for E-generation in Taiwan, also to examine the proficiency levels of these computer skills possessed by accountants currently to serve as crucial references and suggestions to education authorities, schools, faculties and curricular planners. Literature review, expert meetings and questionnaire surveys were utilized for gathering data concerning the items of fundamental computer skills of accountants and proficiency levels of these computer skills possessed by accountants in Taiwan.  Data collected from the questionnaire surveys were analyzed through statistical methods including frequency distribution, T-test, one-way ANOVA, and Scheffe’s method.  The study developed 3 major categories and 17 subcategories as a research framework in consisting of the items of fundamental computer skills of accountants for E-generation in Taiwan.  The progress of information technology not only trigger the business management mode to change but new graduates entering the job market will invariably be required to possess rudimentary computer skills. As the administration of the Ministry of Education directed that training manpower, the intermediate professional technician should be a key objective in all vocational junior colleges [4]. In 2000, the Chinese Computer Skills Foundation indicated that junior college graduates are not only required to be fluent in the domain of conventional accounting knowledge but also need to be proficient in computer skills, such as computer operating system, system software, word processing software, spreadsheet software, packaged commercial accounting software, database software, graphic software, presentation software, multimedia software, Internet software and so forth. A survey in 2002 also found the top four technology skills for new accounting hires to possess, in order of importance, were spreadsheet software (e.g., Excel), Windows, word-processing software (e.g., Word), and the World Wide Web [8].

The Comparative Study of Information Competencies-Using Bloom’s Taxonomy

Jui-Hung Ven, China Institute of Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Chien-Pen Chuang, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

After we collect the professional competency requirements related to information occupations from America, Australia, and Taiwan, we manually extract the action verbs which describe the competencies from the competency statements. All action verbs extracted are then classified into six categories based on Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy. Next, we compare the competency requirements for information occupations from the three countries. We also create a classification lexicon for action verbs based on Bloom’s six cognitive categories. The competency requirements have almost similar distributions in six cognitive categories, which reflect the fact that the same information competencies are required in the three countries. The most needed information competency belongs to the synthesis category and the percentage average is 45%. The second needed competencies are application and analysis with around 20% each. In both knowledge and comprehension level together, the percentage is low, which is up to 5% only.  Competencies, synonymous with abilities, are the state or quality of being able to perform tasks. Therefore, competencies are observable or measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSA) (Rychen & Salganik, 2003). Knowledge and skills give a person the ability to perform tasks, while attitudes give a person the desire to perform tasks. Many countries have developed their own occupational information system to provide services to people who can understand the competency requirements needed for each occupation, such as O*NET OnLine (http://online.onetcenter.org/) developed by the U. S. Department of Labor, National Training Information Systems (NTIS) (http://www.ntis.gov.au) developed by Australia National Training Authority (ANTA), and the Occupation Information Systems (OIS) (http://www2.evta.gov.tw/odict/srch.htm) developed by the Bureau of Employment and Vocational Training of Taiwan.

Expected Default Probability, Credit Spreads and Distant-from-Default

Dr. Heng-Chih Chou, Ming-Chuan University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

This article analyzes the information content of the distant to default regarding a firm’s default risk. Under the Merton’s (1974) option pricing model, both the relations between the expected default probability of a firm and its distant-from-default, and the relations between the credit spreads and distant-from-default are examined. We demonstrate that both expected default probability and credit spreads could be expressed by the analytical function of the distant-from-default. This means that people can easily infer a firm’s expected default probability and also its credit spreads from the information of its value of distant-from-default.   The distant-from-default metric, proposed by KMV Corporation is new but one of the most potential tools in terms of its ability to model default risk. The distant-from-default measures how many standard deviations a firm’s asset value is away from its debt obligations. Higher value of distant-from-default means that the firm's asset value is further from its expected default point, and thus less its expected default probability; lower value of distant-from-default implies that the firm's asset value is close to its default point, and thus higher its expected default probability. However, like the credit rating, the value of distant-from-default does not straightly tell us what the expected default probability and credit spread are.

Yearning for a More Spiritual Workplace

Dr. Joan Marques, Woodbury University, CA

ABSTRACT

Spirituality in the workplace is a term, which, for some, has merely meant yet a new buzzword in the business environment, but which is fortunately for an increasing number of business executives and workers at various levels, emerging into a serious trend that can no longer be pushed aside with an annoyed shrug, or rejected with the cry that it is just another disguise for bringing religious practices into work environments.  This paper reviews 3 main insights that have arisen since the topic of spirituality in the workplace has become such an extensively discussed one, and subsequently elaborates on some major advantages of applying this mindset versus some major disadvantages of refraining from doing so. The paper finally examines one of the main reasons for today’s corporate workplaces to remain unspiritual.  Spirituality in the workplace is a term, which, for some, has merely meant yet a new buzzword in the business environment, but which is fortunately for an increasing number of business executives and workers at various levels, emerging into a serious trend that can no longer be pushed aside with an annoyed shrug, or rejected with the cry that it is just another disguise for bringing religious practices into work environments. The multiple publications and presentations on this topic have, by now, educated the reader’s world enough about the difference between spirituality and religion, and at the same time, have brought about some significant realizations within the minds of members of Corporate America.

The International Harmonization of Accounting Standards: Making progress in Accounting Practice or an Endless Struggle?

Kellie McCombie and Dr. Hemant Deo, University of Wollongong, Australia

ABSTRACT

This research paper aims to use a Foucauldian theoretical framework to explain Australia’s attempts to develop a set of global accounting standards. The involvement of the current Australian Federal Government (AFG) in the standard setting process is crucial to this understanding. The argument put forward by the AFG is seen as one that is constructed according to the “totalizing” discourse of globalization. The power and knowledge of the Australian Accounting Profession (AAP) and the AFG, are highlighted using the Foucauldian framework, providing a means by which this process of harmonization can be appreciated. Australia’s IH project will be explored, with particular emphasis on the AFG’s involvement. This research paper provides an understanding of the Foucauldian theoretical framework, highlighting the significance of discourse, and power and knowledge relationships being studied in an archaeological and genealogical context.  This allows a discussion and analysis of the IH project in Australia, with special attention given to the AAP and AFG roles in creating and sustaining a globalization discourse for the accounting and business community, through the interplay of power and knowledge.  In order to promote the IH project, the paper reveals the promulgation of proposed benefits of IH. These benefits are shown to be based on the neo-liberal version of globalization. In a final section, this research paper critiques the proposed benefits of a globalized accounting discourse that business in Australia now faces.  It is concluded that the IH project in Australia can be best described as an endless struggle to dominate accounting discourse, rather than as representing progress in accounting practice.

The Impact of Environmental characteristic on Manufacturing Strategy under Cleaner Production Principles Guidance

Dr. Jui-Hsiang Chiang and Dr. Ming-Lang Tseng, Toko University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The intense competition and environmental protect in the current Taiwan marketplace has forced the firms to re-examine their methods on current manufacturing strategy. All manufacturers are struggled within the market competition and awareness on green production principles. Above all, this research formed from various previously studies and further to organize the questionnaire and come with research design on causality.   This study surveys on 25 ready-food manufacturing companies in Taipei area to determine the model under such circumstance and manifested statistical tools such as independent sample t test, reliability scale and path analytical method to determine the causality on manufacturing strategy. Ultimately, this research results demonstrated the total direct effect and total indirect effect of exogenous environment and cleaner production principles on manufacturing strategy, and also indicates that exogenous environment and cleaner production principles are vitals on manufacturing strategy.  The intensified competition in a number of global manufacturing industries has triggered in the manufacturing function and the contribution of manufacturing strategy can make towards a company’s competitiveness. The exogenous variables of the model are three dimensions of the environment: dynamism, munificence and complexity (Fluent, 2004). These attributes represent the main characteristics of the exogenous environment considering the resources dependence on manufacturing strategy under the guidance of cleaner production principles. Furthermore, the citations have frequently appeared in the literature for analyzing the effects of environment on organizations (Scutcliffe, 1998) (Boyd, 1993). The proper management of manufacturing requires that sufficient and maximum strategies should be formulated to govern its operations. Such strategies should consist of coordinated objectives and strategic plan, which shall have the purpose of securing medium and long-term sustainable competitive advantages over the firm’s competitors (Tseng & Chiu, 2004). And sustainable development presented for the preservation of resources for the future generations while the present generation continuous its growth and development. However, the manufacturing industry is not only integrated the manufacturing strategy into its business system but also the environmental protection has to be the guidance for its future operation (Azzone, 1998) (Ward, 1996). This research focuses on the cleaner production principles as the guidance of manufacturing strategy (Chiu & Tseng, 2004) and impact of exogenous environment.

The Relationships Between Explicit and Tacit Oriented KM Strategy, and Firm Performance

Dr. Halit Keskin, Gebze Institute of Technology, Turkey

ABSTRACT

In this study knowledge is considered as explicit and tacit; and in line with this, KM (KM) strategies are classified into two categories: explicit oriented KM strategy and tacit oriented KM strategy; and the relationships between these variables and firm performance are investigated. Also the environmental factors are used as moderators between KM strategies and firm performance. According to the regression analyses, explicit and tacit KM strategies have positive effects on firm performance; and the impact (magnitude) of explicit oriented KM strategy is higher than the tacit oriented one on firm performance. Also it was found that greater environment hostility, the greater relationship between explicit and tacit oriented KM strategies, and firm performance.   Disappearing boundaries, globalizing competition and rapid changing technology and business life; lead the economy to a knowledge based direction (Clarke, 2001). While the factors of production, such as labor and capital were concentrated assets in traditional economic structure; knowledge has come on the scene as a factor itself and has become the most important one (Cliffe, 1998; Hansen, Nohria&Tierney, 1999; Davenport, 1997). In this sense, firms have become much more interested in stimulating knowledge, which is considered as the greatest asset for their decision making and strategy formulation. For example, Drucker (1993) stated that, “We are moving to a society in which the basic resource of economy is knowledge, instead of capital, labor and natural resources”.

The Cultural Dimension of Technology Readiness on Customer Value Chain in Technology-Based Service Encounters

Chien-Huang Lin and Ching-Huai Peng, National Central University, Taiwan 

ABSTRACT

Most extant literatures discuss how technology can successfully infuse into the new emergent service setting. Only a few articles, posing customer might be reluctant to interact with technology, are discussed from the stance of customer. To investigate how country level variables, such as culture dimensions, influence the chain is also important for international marketing strategy planning.  A conceptual model of customer technology-based service value chain that integrates micro- and macro- level perspectives is developed, in which possible influence from customer technology readiness and from national culture dimensions are also discussed.  As technology advances daily, many traditional human-to-human service encounters are now replaced by human-to-machine service encounters, where technology plays an important role in delivering service to customer. Hence, it is valuable to distinguish within conventional solid service value chain how various customers’ beliefs toward technology affect their service perceptions and consequential behaviors.  Furthermore, in a global environment, service firms do compete one another beyond country boundary. This research reviews papers in related domains and leads to the construction of a conceptual framework for better explaining consumer behavior under technology-based service encounter from cross-culture points of view.

Applying Knowledge Management System with Agent Technology to Support Decision Making in Collaborative Learning Environment

Rusli Abdullah, Shamsul Sahibudin*, Rose Alinda Alias,* and Mohd Hasan Selamat

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

* Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

Knowledge management system (KMS) with agent technology has played the major roles in managing knowledge to support making decision among communities of practice (CoP) of collaborative learning environment. This service is provided that to ensure utilization of knowledge as the corporate assets could be acquired and disseminated at anytime and anywhere, in the context of reaching and sharing the knowledge between CoP. Agent technology has also been used to speed up and increase the quality of service in KM process of collaborative learning environment, in term of creating, gathering, accessing, organizing and disseminating knowledge. This paper described on the conceptual and its relationship with agent technology in KMS and also been demonstrated on how it was being used to support the community members to make decisions of their purposes of learning environment. In this case, the KM system development is implemented by using the groupware software that is Lotus Notes product as a case study. Emphasis will be given in discussing the algorithms process specification of agent used that helps members to making decision and work collaboratively. The identification of critical success factors (CSF) of KMS in collaborative learning environment to ensure its initiatives will also been discussed. 

Using Balanced Scorecard and Fuzzy Data Envelopment Analysis for Multinational R & D Project Performance Assessment

Dr. Kuang-Hua Hsu, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ABSTRACT

Performance indicator is an important factor used in business goal setting and management performance assessment. Traditionally, companies tend to measure business performance in terms of financial data such as ROI, ROA, etc. However, those indicators are not enough for management to evaluate business performance as a whole. Balanced Scorecard can be used to overcome this problem by integrating all aspects of business operation such as customer aspect, organizational process aspect, business creation and learning aspect, and financial aspect. While we are proposing the Balanced Scorecard method, we have to, at the same time, evaluate the performance of the organization. Whilst business performance can be expressed in certain clear numbers or words, it can only be described in vague languages for most of the times. Thus, the Data Envelopment Analysis Method (DEA) along with the Fuzzy Theory can be implemented to generate the objective performance indicators. This paper uses the Fuzzy DEA to evaluate the performance of Balanced Scoreboard for a multi-national research and development project. 

Contemporary Knowledge Management Platform - EPSS

H. W. Lee, M.B.A., Ph.D., National Chia-Yi University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The goal of an EPSS is to provide whatever is necessary to generate performance and learning at the moment of need.  Gery (1991) states that people have been provided with some of the help to accomplish this goal with powerful tools such as job aids and CBT. However, these tools are not an EPSS by themselves, although they can be part of an EPSS. The common denominator that differentiates an electronic performance support system from other types of systems or interactive resources is the degree to which it integrates information, tools, and methodology for the user. This paper examines the definition of an EPSS, reviews EPSS components, examines some course management tools currently used in educational programs, and explores the use of EPSS technology in education.  Definitions of electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) vary, but they are generally agreed to be software programs or components that directly support a worker's performance when, how, and where the support is needed. EPSSs are intended to improve workers' ability to perform tasks, usually being performed on a computer. They are related to, but more than, task-oriented online help.

An Empirical Investigation of Sexual Harassment Incidences in the Malaysian Workplace

Dr. Mohd Nazari Ismail and Lee Kum Chee, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the findings of a study which investigates the factors that contributed to incidences of sexual harassment at the Malaysian workplace.  A questionnaire survey which was partly based on the Sexual Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) developed by Fitzgerald et al (1988) was carried out involving 656 respondents. The findings showed that sexual harassment incidences are rampant at Malaysian workplaces.  The findings also indicate that it is aggravated by several factors related to both the organization as well as the individual worker.  Specifically, a working environment characterized by lack of professionalism and sexist attitudes biased against women would cause female employees to be more prone to being sexually harassed.  When the various demographic characteristics were studied, the findings reveal that the sample of women employees who face a greater risk of sexual harassment tend to fall under the category of the unmarried, less educated, and Malay.   As the level of competition increases at a rapid rate, workers remain undeniably an important factor in the competitiveness of modern organizations.   However, as more women enter the labor force, the phenomenon of sexual harassment is increasingly becoming a workplace problem thereby affecting the competitiveness of organizations involved.   According to a major study conducted in the United States in 1981 by the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board on 23,000 federal government employees, as much as 42 percent of the females had experienced sexual harassment in the two years prior to the survey (cited in Stockdale and Hope 1997).  Sexual harassment also exists among women in 160 of the Fortune 500 list of companies surveyed (Frits, 1989), where 15 percent of these workers have been sexually harassed within the past year while 50 percent tried to ignore it.   In addition, 24 percent of victims took leave from work so as to avoid it and five percent resigned after experiencing such incidents.  These in turn result in resignations, absenteeism, and reduced productivity of victims.

Mortgage Decision … Lower Payment or Faster Payoff?

Ralph Gallay, Ph.D., Rider University, NJ

ABSTRACT

Homeowner financing decisions are confused by the difficulty of comparing the benefits of long-term low monthly payment mortgages, with those of short-term faster payoff loans. The author presents a simplified return on investment perspective that allows one to make an objective comparison of the two alternatives based on increased equity as well as reduced interest costs, relative to extra payments made. This paper is positioned to be both a borrower’s, or lender’s tool to evaluate and explain the relative merits of different mortgages, as well as a pedagogical instrument for educators of personal financial issues.  With interest rates in the United States near their lowest in over forty years, an entire new generation of homeowners is faced with the beneficial opportunity of refinancing. The ensuing discussion and calculations apply to every state within the country and affect all of the approximately 74 million owner-occupied homeowners therein (2. Danter, p.1), many of whom either are, or have been recently engaged in seeking homeowner refinancing. In fact, “(2002) was surely one of the most memorable years ever experienced by the home mortgage market”, to quote Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greenspan (1. AFSA, p.1) and these represent more than sixty percent of all loans (6. MSN Money, p.1). The decision many people make in refinancing, inevitably hinges largely on how monthly payments might be reduced and most promotional efforts seem directed at emphasizing this point above all others. Many lending institutions do little to clarify the situation further. In fact some intentionally seem to confuse and confound the consumer with their messages (5. Mokhiber, 2002).  A second concern, but one less stressed, is how quickly the loan is paid off, thereby reducing interest payments which do relatively little to enhance the benefit of the borrower. While on a United States itemized tax return, a homeowner may qualify to deduct mortgage interest payments, usually one of the taxpayers largest single deductions, for most this yields only about thirty cents of savings on taxes for every one dollar of interest paid. Clearly, the best scenario would be to avoid interest payments altogether unless one has a higher priority, or better reason to borrow such as for college, medical, home improvement costs, etc.

Taiwan Multinational Companies and the Effects Fitness Between Subsidiary Strategic Roles and Organizational Configuration on Business Performance: Moderating Cultural Differences

Dr. Ming-Chu Yu, National Kaohsuing University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsuing city, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships among Taiwan’s overseas subsidiaries based on their strategic roles (including degrees of integration and degrees of localization), organizational configurations (including degrees of resource dependence and degrees of delegation) and business performance. However, their relationships also depend on the subsidiaries’ cultural differences. Using regression analysis, we show that different types of industries, stages of internationalization, degrees of integration, degrees of localization, and degrees of resource dependence are the most important factors on the subsidiaries’ perceived activity satisfaction.  The results indicate that the sample of Taiwanese MNC affiliates falls into three subgroups (Autonomous Strategy, Receptive Strategy, and Active Strategy) depending on their global strategies. Active Subsidiaries are highly integrated and have high local responsiveness; Autonomous Subsidiaries have high local responsiveness but low integration, while Respective Subsidiaries have low local responsiveness but are highly integrated.  Corporate internationalization and globalization is the focal point in the twenty-first century. The internationalization and the liberalization of business activities are two important elements for the success of contemporary enterprises. Recently, enterprises in Taiwan face surges of wages, rigorous requirements on the benefits of workers and changing business climates. In addition, the establishment of regional economic cooperatives has further accelerated the pace of overseas corporate investment to gain competitive advantages and market niches. Most of these investments concentrate on Mainland China and South East Asia. There has been a profound impact on multinational corporations (MNCs) in the past decade in Taiwan.

An Analysis of Global Retail Strategies: A Case of U.S. Based Retailers

Soo-Young Moon, The University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WI

ABSTRACT

Since international marketing channels have played an important role in distributing products from international marketers to consumers in the world, and the impact of some global channel members has been far beyond the traditional functions of retailers, this study reviews the global strategic issues of U.S. based retailers.  Specifically, this study analyzes the global strategies of Wal-Mart, Home Depot, Kroger, Target, and Sears based on the concept of generic strategic options. Overall, the study found that globalization is not the answer for all retailers.  If a retailer finds that globalization is consistent with its strategic advantages, it is critical to analyze this option along with others.  Otherwise, the retailer should seek other alternatives.  However, all major retailers may have to expand their operation to the global market due to its growth potential and heavy competition in the U.S. market.  Since Levitt (1983) advocated the importance of globalization in international business, much research (e.g., Bakhaus, Muhlfeld, and Van Doorn, 2001; Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2003; Hong, Pecotich, and Schultz, 2002; Laroche, Kirpalani, Pons, and Zhou, 2001; Shoham, 2002; Zou, Shaoming and Cavusgil, 2002) has been conducted empirically or theoretically to identify which strategy, standardization or customization, is more appropriate for a global expansion.  However, most focus has been on how to market products in the global market by using a standardization or customization approach.  The literature review in this field indicates that though marketing channels are an indispensable part of global marketing, there has not been enough research to find major channel issues.  International marketing channels have played an important role in distributing products from international marketers to consumers in the world.  Furthermore, some global channel members such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, and Metro AG became global retailers, and their impact is far beyond the traditional functions of retailers.  Thus, the objective of this study is to review the global strategic issues of U.S. based retailers.  Specifically, this study analyzes the global strategies of Wal-Mart, Home Depot, Kroger, Target, and Sears based on the concept of generic strategic options.  All firms have four major strategic options: market penetration, product expansion, market expansion, and diversification (Aaker, 1995).  Though the origin of these options was for “goods” producers, they can be transformed easily to retailers for their strategic direction.

The Impact of Consumer Product Knowledge on the Effect of Terminology in Advertising

Shin-Chieh Chuang, Chao-yang University of Technology,Taiwan

Chia-Ching Tsai, Da-yeh University, Taiwan

ABSTRACT

The use of terminology in advertising is rather popular and commonplace. Previous research suggested that using terminology in ads was intended to create more vividness effect on the audience, who may adopt the “central path” in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and be convinced by the terminology in the advertisement message. However, we found that the better vividness effect occurs, when the subjects possess low product knowledge; conversely, a worse vividness effect is present when the subjects possess high product knowledge.  In recent years, terminology has been used in large quantity, especially in ads, to which lots of terminology is attached. Shibata (1983) pointed out in his study that there was an increase of the use of monolingual message in Japanese society, and the English language was of greater and greater importance and was used more frequently. Mueller (1992) studied the use of Western languages in Japanese ads in 1978 and 1989, and the results showed the percentage of using English in Japanese ads was increasing and there was an upward trend of using English (which is not translated into Japanese) in Japanese ads. The main reasons of adopting terminology is that when audiences receive terminology, a vividness effect will occur to capture audiences’ attention and audiences may process ads containing terminology via the “central route” of the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and ads become persuasive. Moreover, the use of terminology may appeal to professional recognition, which is associated with technology and a professional image is formed to impact consumers’ purchasing behaviors.  Previous studies suggest that ads containing terminology can increase effectiveness of ads (Hong, 2002). In his further studies, Hong examines whether different effects occur in different product items in which terminology is used.

Analyzing Functional Performance of Hong Kong Firms: Planning, Budgeting, Forecasting, and Automation

Steven P. Landry, Ph.D., Monterey Institute of International Studies

Terrance Jalbert, Ph.D., University of Hawaii at Hilo

Canri Chan, Ph.D., Monterey Institute of International Studies

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a case study concerning benchmarking one particular set of performance attributes of firms. Specifically, the study addresses issues of planning, budgeting, forecasting and automation of the accounting and finance functions of Hong Kong firms.  Students are required to compile raw data gathered from a survey into a format that can be utilized for benchmarking.  Further, students are asked to address inherent data limitations associated with using low return-rate, small sample size, survey data for benchmarking.   Students are also required to develop various tables and discuss how the data and tables might best be used.  The case is appropriate for sophomore and junior undergraduate students.  Students should be able to complete the case in 1 hour of preparation outside the classroom.    In order to survive in a competitive economy, firms must continuously improve and enhance their products, services and operations.  Benchmarking is the primary method by which firms assess their performance relative to their peers.  Benchmarking involves comparing an attribute of one firm to the same attribute in a group of  comparison firms.  To make the comparison fair, the comparison firms should be similar to the firm being examined.  Thus, comparison firms are generally selected from firms in the same industry that are similar in size and operate in a similar geographic area.  By comparing a firm to its peers, managers can identify areas where they have a competitive advantage, areas where they have a competitive disadvantage and areas for improvement.  In so doing, firms can best position themselves in the market to better deliver their value proposition and therefore maximize shareholder wealth.

Risk Perception, Risk Propensity and Entrepreneurial Behaviour: The Greek Case

P. E. Petrakis, Ph.D., Athens National and Kapodistrian University, Greece

ABSTRACT

The analysis clearly projects two main points: a) the way that risk is perceived by the entrepreneur, which is a primary procedure that determines other important aspects of the entrepreneurial behaviour and performance, b) that there are no determining factors of the risk perception; although it influences the way that cultural idiosyncrasies, knowledge and flexibility characteristics are developed and affects the firm’s performance.  On the contrary risk propensity is determined within the entrepreneurial behaviour framework and it takes mediating role of transforming influences mainly from the external macroeconomic environment into important personal traits. It also mediates the entrepreneur’s independence, his need for achievement and his risk perception.   The research concerning the factors affecting the entrepreneurial activity has a long history and is extended in the fields of economics (Schumpeter, 1934), sociology (Weber, 1930), and psychology (McClelland, 1961). The entrepreneurial activation is the combined result of macro level environmental conditions (Aldrich, 2000), which have economic or social origin, the characteristics of entrepreneurial opportunities (Christiansen, 1997), and of human behaviour that are related to entrepreneurial motives (Shane, Locke and Collins, 2003) and cognitions (Mitchell, Smith, Morse, Seawright, Peredo and McKenzie, 2002).  The issue of risk is central to the study of entrepreneurial behaviour and performance. Different points of views are employed in entrepreneurial risk research agenda (Norton and Moore, 2002): opportunity recognition (Hills, Shrader and Lumpin, 1999; Rice and Kelley, 1997), opportunity evaluation (Hean Tat Keh, Maw Der Foo and Boon Chong Ling, 2002) decision making and problem framing (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; Schneider, 1992), risk propensity and cultural approval of risk (Wallach and Kogan, 1964; Brockhaus, 1980; Gomez-Mejia and Balkan, 1989; Rowe, 1997) and cognitive approaches to entrepreneurship (Palich and Bagby, 1995). Finally the issue of entrepreneurial alertness in relation to risk has been restated (Norton and Moore, 2002) in the light of Bayesian model.

Growth, Entrepreneurship, Structural Change, Time and Risk

P. E. Petrakis, Ph.D., Athens National and Kapodistrian University, Greece

INTRODUCTION

This article is about the role of the entrepreneurial perception of time and risk vis à vis structural change and growth. Entrepreneurship is a basic constituent element of social capital which in turn is a productive lubricant of the growth process. Different structural entrepreneurial prototypes with respect to time and risk have different structural change effects. Those structural changes (and any structural changes) are not neutral as far as the implications of growth rate changes are concerned. Therefore the time and risk characteristics of active entrepreneurship are reflected in the growth process either in the form of structural change and/or in the form of growth rate change.  The paper is developed as follows: section 2 focuses on social capital, entrepreneurship and growth relationship; sections 3 and 4 relates to the analytics of risk and time; section 5 clarifies the time and risk dimensions of entrepreneurship; section 6 analyses the effects of entrepreneurial time and risk on structural change. Finally conclusions will be drawn.

The Effect of Genetically Modified Seed Technology on the Direct and Fixed Costs of Producing Cotton

D. W. Parvin, Ph.D., Mississippi State University, MS

ABSTRACT

The introduction of genetically modified seed technology dramatically changed cotton production practices.  Production systems based on reduced tillage and varieties containing genetically modified genes improved net returns by $47.35 per acre (53%) when compared to systems based on conventional tillage and non-transgenic varieties.  Changing the planting pattern to 30” 2x1 full skip and reducing the seeding rate to 3 per foot of row increased net returns by 78% when compared to a 38” solid planting pattern and 4 seed per foot of row.  Emerging harvesting technology, cotton picker with onboard module builder, which eliminated boll buggies and module builders (and the tractors they require) will reduce harvest cost by 32%.  Monsanto introduced their genetically modified seed (GMS) technology in 1996 and dramatically changed the way cotton is grown.  In 1995 most of the cotton grown in the Mid-south was based on conventional varieties and employed conventional tillage practices.  In 2004 approximately 95% of the Mid-south cotton acreage was planted with genetically modified varieties (Mississippi Agricultural Statistics Service) and was based on conservation tillage or no-till production practices.  The new technology has reduced the number of trips-over-the-field, reduced labor and equipment requirements per acre of cotton, and stimulated the development of other new technology.  Basically, the new systems of production employ fewer trips-over-the-field with wider equipment.

E-Government  – A proactive participant for e-learning in higher education

Sangeetha Sridhar, Majan University College, Sultanate of Oman

ABSTRACT

The advent of Information Communication Technology (ICT) has empowered both learners and teacher with capabilities to reach and resource beyond physical borders. The information age is changing the way people work, learn, spend their free time and interact with one other. In the Knowledge era, communication technology has made it possible to have a Global University Campus in all its true senses: a collaborative community, multinational staffing, distributed campus resources and multimedia technology. ICTs are driving down costs, improving efficiency and creating a climate of innovation, with competitiveness moving from the national to the global level. They are challenging existing methods of governance, commerce, education, communication and entertainment.  This paper presents the findings of a research into the issues regarding the role of e-governance in higher education especially incorporating ICT technologies. The recent trends in higher education demand knowledge creation, capture, dissemination and application for crafting a sustainable development of the entire economy. The paper looks into the Vision 2020 statement for strategic goals, while analyzing the Census 2003 data for trends and direction of higher education in the local region. The research begins with an appraisal of the advent of higher education in Oman, the different centres of excellence and disciplines to begin with. It draws statistics from the Census 2003 to identify further requirements and potentials for future direction and initiatives.

The Role of Affect and Cognition in the Perception of Outcome Acceptability Under Different Justice Conditions

Dr. Douglas Flint, University of New Brunswick, Canada

Dr. Pablo Hernandez-Marrero, University of Toronto, Canada

Dr. Martin Wielemaker, University of New Brunswick, Canada

ABSTRACT

Prior research has focused on negative affective responses to distributive justice.  This study extends this to consider both affective and cognitive responses to various combinations of procedural and distributive justice.  The effects of these responses on perceptions of outcome acceptability are then determined.  Structural equation modeling is used to measure the interrelationships of the affective and cognitive effects.  In the conceptualization of equity theory Adams (1965) and Walster, Walster and Berscheild (1978) postulated that perceptions of injustice would lead to negative emotional states that would then motivate a search to redress the inequity. Since that time a limited amount of research has confirmed the production of negative affective responses to injustice (Clayton, 1992, study 2; Hegtvedt, 1990;Mikula, 1986; Sprecher, 1992).  The most comprehensive study to date by Mikula, Scherer and Athenstaedt (1998) involved 2,921 students who reported situations in which they had experienced positive and negative affective reactions.  Situations perceived of as unjust elicited feelings that were longer in duration and more intense.  The studies to date have focused on affective responses to distributive justice.  To the best of our knowledge no studies have examined cognitive responses to justice.  Therefore, this study proposes to extend this to the consideration of the effects of both procedural and distributive justice on cognitive and affect responses.  Further, we propose to examine the effects of cognitive and affective responses to the formation of perceptions of the acceptability of an outcome.  We begin with a description of procedural and distributive justice. This is followed by a discussion of affect, cognition and their interrelationships.  Research hypotheses are formulated about the effect of different interrelationships on the formation of perceptions of outcome acceptability.

Developing Measurements of Digital Capital in Employment Websites by Analytic Hierarchy Process

Chung-Chu Liu, Ph.D., National Taipei University

Shiou-Yu Chen, Ph.D., Chung-Yu Institute of Technology

ABSTRACT

The Internet has provided a place for businesses to come together with a speed and possibility for communication that was never possible before today's information age. Digital capital, the currency of the future, refers to intangible assets gained through knowledge and relationships. This research developed 17 indicators to assess the digital capital on employment websites. The researchers used in-depth interviews to collect data followed by Content Analysis and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) for analysis. According to the analytical results, the study identified four dimensions of digital capital; customer capital, innovation capital, service capital, and relational capital. These results provide a reference point for web-base organizations to assist in determining the key digital capital of their employment websites.   The emergence of Internet technology and the World-Wide Web as an electronic medium of commerce has brought tremendous change to the way businesses compete.  Companies that fail to make use of Internet technology are regarded as not delivering value added services to their customers and are consequently at a competitive loss.  Internet technologies provide businesses with tools to adapt to changing customer needs and can be used for their economic, strategic and competitive advantage (Hamid & Kassim, 2004). Recruitment has emerged as a critical human resource management function for organizations, particularly in an environment of competitive labor markets and mobile employees.  Despite changes in the nature of work and the adoption of new technologies, organizational effectiveness is still largely dependent on the competency and motivation of individual employees (Allen, Scotter & Otondo, 2004).  Recently, employment websites in Taiwan have played an important role as a cost and time effective means of helping job hunters find new employment. According to a 1999 survey of HR professionals by the Society for Human Resource Management, while nearly two-thirds of human resources professionals placed classified ads in Sunday newspapers, almost 40% also relied on Internet job postings.  It is estimated that 32% of all recruitment- advertising budgets in the year 2000 would be spent on the Internet, while the share that went to newspapers would reduced from 70% to 52% (Mondy, Noe & Premeaux, 2002).

Socializing a Capitalistic World: Redefining the Bottom Line

Dr. Joan Marques, Woodbury University, CA

ABSTRACT:

As the trend toward global integration intensifies, the awareness increases that no single ideology has proven flawless. Although still very much in evaluative stage, and unfortunately not yet accepted to the same degree by all participants in the global playing field, there is significant progress to be ascertained in determining what the new, workable trend will be. Interestingly, this development synchronously happens at multiple levels: within the global environment, and within the corporate world, for there, too, it has been proven that no single overbearing style sorts lasting success. An integrative, local approach from all angles seems to be the way to go in the future. This paper reviews some of the current trends and criticisms, and presents a model for the new bottom line in the new world.  While countries in today’s ever-intertwining world are gradually detaching themselves from the utilization of explicit ideologies and embracing a more moderate and meaningful approach, companies are mirroring this very trend in a more compact format.  What, exactly, are we talking about? Well, just observe the global trends for a moment: countries that used to be known for decades on behalf of their strict capitalistic, socialistic, or communistic systems are now, due to their increased exposure to other cultures, mindsets and procedures, moving toward what is popularly referred to as mixed economies.  How did this come about? Through the dazzling events and dynamic developments of the past century, of course! Cars, airplanes, and the Internet have enabled people from different cities, countries, and continents, to observe, mingle with-, and learn from one another in no time. This development gradually yet massively elicited the insight that no ideology works satisfactorily if performed to the extreme: